Ancient Shipbuilding Techniques

The study of ancient shipbuilding techniques and their

development in the ancient era has mainly been based upon a

technical analysis of the archaeological and historical evidence

available, concluding normally in a sort of logical and linear

evolution. However, the new perspective given to the research

of ancient maritime societies by the growing discipline of maritime

archaeology and the study of the most recent archaeological finds

leas us to reconsider the development of nautical technology

in Antiquity and to understand the importance of the social

component in its historical evolution.

Introduction

The different techniques used during the Ancient World in

shipbuilding have long been assumed to manifest a sort of

linear “evolution”. The research on ancient watercrafts and the

field of maritime archaeology in itself, until very recently, have

studied and interpreted boats remains with a mere

technical approach. Hence, the overview that has traditionally

been given of the development of naval technology in the Ancient

Mediterranean, from the first evidences of bundle rafts in Egypt

to the construction of big plank boats, firstly using sewn joints

as The Cheops Ship (2600 BC) and then the mortise.and tenon

fastenings technique, used forinstance in The Kyrenia Ship in

Cyprus (300BC), is that of a consecutive and related process.

In the last decade, however, the maritime archaeology discipline

and the study of ancient boats have broadened its scope looking

for the social patterns and anthropological traits behind the

evident material culture.Furthermore, new archaeological finds

and other sort of evidences are showing us that the nautical

scene of the Ancient Mediterranean Sea was rather more complex

than we had thought. Although it appears evident that shipbuilding

techniques among mediterranean communities moved towards

improvements in the manoeuvrability and the rigidity of the vessels,

we often find that technology is restricted by the society that

uses it, together with its socioeconomic systems, and also by

the environment where they interact (Westerdahl, 1992 & 1994; Adams,

2001). Factors such as religion, tradition, political or economic

system, which are in continuous relation with themselves, shape and

constrain the ideas, symbols and uses that a specific society gives

to its watercrafts.

Despite technological progresses in the mediterranean region new

evidence shows that sewn-plank boats continued to be widely in use

from the late centuries BC, in Roman times and even earlier, to the

eleventh century AD, right into the medieval period . At the same

time, from the first century BC we can perceive a progressive

abandonment in the use of the mortise and tenon fastenings, gaining

crucial importance the internal structure

of framing and longitudinal timbers. This appears to be clear in

the evidence from the seventh century AD. By the beginning of the

eleventh century AD the old shipbuilding technique of shell-first

construction was completely abandoned and shifted to frame-first

techniques, which were to be of great influence in the new social

and political situation of Europe from the medieval period onwards.

Throughout this article it will be examined how the continuity of

sewn fastenings and the ship construction to framing-first

techniques evidence on the transition from shell-fir

scan tell us about the social implications that their raised the

shipbuilding techniques used in the An use entails. For that

purpose it will be briefly sum ancient Mediterranean until the

Medieval Period and some of the evidence we have of relationship

between ship technology and them, analysing some specific examples

to approach this better understanding of the society in the Ancient

World.

Shipbuilding techniques & Navigation in Ancient India.

An Ancient India there existed a strange belief that if any Hindu crossed the seas, he would lose his religion. When and why this belief came into being is not known. But taking a close look at out nation's maritime history we find evidence of a very large number of Indians who should have had lost their religion as they had crossed the seas to trade and build empires in distant lands.

Not only did these enterprising Indians, not lose their religion but they made India into one of the foremost maritime nations of those days and spread Indian culture overseas.

In those days India had colonies, in Cambodia (Kambuja in Sanskrit) in Java, (Chavakam or Yava dwipa) in Sumatra, in Borneo, Socotra (Sukhadhara) and even in Japan. Indian traders had established settlements in Southern China, in the Malayan Peninsula, in Arabia, in Egypt, in Persia, etc., Through the Persians and Arabs, India had cultivated trade relations with the Roman Empire.

Sanskrit and Pali literature has innumerable references to the maritime activity of Indians in ancient times. There is also one treatise in Sanskrit, named Yukti Kalpa Taru which has been compiled by a person called Bhoja Narapati. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru (YKT) had been translated and published by Prof. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of Sanskrit Manu scripts. An excellent study of the YKT had been undertaken by Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji entitled 'Indian Shipping'. Published by Orient Longman, Bombay in 1912.)

A panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicting a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types Their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru an ancient Indian text on Ship-building.

This treatise gives a technocratic exposition on the technique of shipbuilding. It sets forth minute details about the various types of ships, their sizes, the materials from which they were built. The Yukti Kalpa Taru sums up in a condensed form all the available information

The Yukti Kalpa Taru gives sufficient information and date to prove that in ancient times, Indian shipbuilders had a good knowledge of the materials which were used in building ships. Apart from describing the qualities of the different types of wood and their suitability in shipbuilding, the Yukti Kalpa Taru also gives an elaborate classification of ships based on their size.

The primary division is into 2 classes viz. Samanya (ordinary) and Vishesha (Special). The ordinary type for sea voyages. Ships that undertook sea voyages were classified into, Dirgha type of ships which had a long and narrow hull and the Unnata type of ships which had a higher hull.

The treatise also gives elaborate directions for decorating and furnishing the ships with a view to making them comfortable for passengers. Also mentioned are details about the internal seating and accommodation to be provided on the ships. Three classes of ships are distinguished according to their length and the position of cabins. The ships having cabins extending from one end of the deck to the other are called Sarvamandira vessels.

These ships are recommended for the transport of royal treasure and horses. The next are the Madhyamarnandira vessels which have cabins only in the middle part of their deck. these vessels are recommended for pleasure trips. And finally there is a category of Agramandira vessels, these ships were used mainly in warfare.

There were Sanskrit terms for many parts of a ship. The ship's anchor was known as Nava-Bandhan-Kilaha which literally means 'A Nail to tie up a ship' . The sail was called Vata Vastra a which means 'wind-cloth'. The hull was termed StulaBhaga i.e. an'expanded area'. The rudder was called Keni-Pata, Pata means blade; the rudder was also known as Karna which literally means a 'ear' and was so called because it used to be a hollow curved blade, as is found today in exhaust fans. The ship's keel was called Nava-Tala which means 'bottom of a ship'. The mast was known as Kupadanda, in which danda means a pole.

Even a sextant was used for navigation and was called Vruttashanga-Bhaga. But what is more surprising is that even a contrived mariner's compass was used by Indian navigators nearly 1500 to 2000 years ago. This claim is not being made in an overzealous nationalistic spirit. This has in fact been the suggestion of an European expert, Mr. J.L. Reid, who was a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders in England at around the beginning of the present century. This is what Mr. Reid has said in the Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xiii., Part ii., Appendix A.

"The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil and pointed to the North. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word Maccha Yantra, or fish machine, which Molesworth gives as a name for the mariner's compass".

It is significant to note that these are the words of a foreign Naval Architect and Shipbuilding Expert. It is thus quite possible that the Maccha Yantra (fish machine) was transmitted to the west by the Arabs to give us the mariner's compass of today.

Shipbuilding in Ancient China

With a long coastline stretching along the broad water areas of Bohai, Huanghai, Donghai, and Nanhai, and bordering the world's largest ocean, the Pacific Ocean, China enjoys a special water environment. Hence, Chinese people began to engage in seafaring activities a long time ago. Chinese shipbuilding boasts an even longer history, as it began in primeval times.

As early as in the Neolithic Age (about 10,000-4,000 years ago), Chinese people had begun to made canoes and rafts, and with their courage and wisdom, had traveled the ocean. Textual research has proved that the ancient Baiyue people, who lived in Southeast China, invented the first water-bound vehicle.

During the Qin (221-206) and Han (206BC-220AD) dynasties, China's shipbuilding witnessed the first climax, when the Qin EmperorQin Shihuangorganized a fleet capable of transporting 500,000 shi (1 shi = 170 pounds /71.7 kilos) of grain in a war. As recorded in ancient books, Emperor Qin Shihuang once led a fleet composed of lou chuan (castle ships, or war ships with deck castles) for an assault on the Chu State. After the unification of all of China, he also cruised along inland rivers and navigated at sea.

By theHan Dynasty, the navy mainly composed of castle ships was much stronger. It was said that the Han government could mobilize over 2,000 castle ships and 200,000 seamen for one battle. Various kinds of warships could be found, such as Xian Deng -- an assault ship, Meng Chong -- a narrow warship for striking the enemy's warships, and Ben Ma -- a ship as fast as a galloping horse. However, the assault castle ship was still the most important among all the ships and constituted the main force of the navy. Apart from being famous, the castle ship was also the symbol for the dynasty's advanced shipbuilding techniques.

The development in shipbuilding during the Qin and Han dynasties laid a solid foundation for the progress in shipbuilding skills in the following dynasties. The Wu State of theThree Kingdoms Period(220-280) had a prosperous shipbuilding industry and once built a five-story ship that could hold up to 3,000 soldiers. TheSouthern Dynasty(420-589) could build big ships with a holding capacity of 1,000 tons in the southern areas of theYangtze River. In order to enhance the ship's speed, the great scientist of the Southern Qi Dynasty (what year; I'm unfamiliar with this dynasty) invented the manpowered paddle wheel ship. Though not as efficient as using the sail, the paddle wheel ship was still recognized as a significant invention, which provided inspiration for the improvement of ship power later on.

China's shipbuilding industry entered a period of maturity, both in quantity and quality in the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties. Utilization of many shipbuilding techniques, such as the stern helm, the highly efficient propelling tool - scull, and the sails, were further improved during this period. Besides, many more advanced techniques were also created. TheSui Dynasty, though short lived, enjoyed a highly developed shipbuilding industry, with the capacity to build giantdragonboats. Assembled with mortise-and-tenon joints, the dragon boats were much stronger than those connected with iron nails or bamboo nails.

Ships built during this period were larger in body, more reasonable in configuration, and more complex in techniques. Among the various ships for use on rivers (as opposed for seas or oceans), there were plenty of ships capable of holding 600 to 700 people, with a length of over 20 zhang (about 66 meters). On some ships, vegetables were grown. During the Song Dynasty, a huge ship named Shen Zhou was made, which boasted a carrying capacity of 1,500 tons and a hull length of 31.5 zhang (about 100 meters).

Ship design at that time applied the principle of "curved side boards, broad lateral beams, and loft superstructure." Under this principle, the decks were broadened, and more cabin space was available. The V-shaped bottom greatly facilitated the sailing.

The number of ships also increased by leaps and bounces, with an obvious increase in shipbuilding yards capable of building any kinds of ships, including river boats, sea boats, warships, and so on.

Apart from the above-mentioned features, shipbuilding techniques also experienced enormous advances. Mortise-and-tenon joints were employed in assembling ships, hence greatly improving the ships' strength. China's adoption of this technology was 500 years earlier than that in European countries. The Song artisans were able to make models based on the function and use of the ships to be built, with blueprints being worked out prior to carrying out the actual construction. Ship blueprints did not appear in European until 300 to 400 years later.

The paddle wheel ship, a kind of warship that emerged during the Southern Dynasty, also got improved. The paddle wheel ship got wooden wheels installed on both sides of the hull, which greatly increased the ship's speed. Since the ancient ships were mostly sailing ships that could not easily sail against wind or water, the development of paddle wheel ships solved the problem to a certain extent.

In the early years of the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), there were more than 17,900 navy warships. The Yuan emperors would usually order thousands of warships to be built for a battle. Besides, there were a great many civil ships scattered all over the country. Meanwhile, Arabs' shipbuilding and navigation gradually declined. Therefore, Chinese four-mast sea boats could be seen on the Southern Sea and the Indian Ocean, taking the lead in navigation and shipbuilding.

The huge development in shipbuilding during the Yuan Dynasty laid an advantageous foundation for the building of five-mast warships, six-mast guest ships, seven-mast grain ships, eight-mast horse ships (which carried horses), and nine-mast precious ships (which carried valuable cargo) during theMing Dynasty.

China's shipbuilding reached its third climax during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), when an unprecedented number of ships were built by employing the well-developed shipbuilding technologies of the Tang and Song dynasties.

According to some archeological discoveries and historical records, the distribution and scale of the Ming Dynasty's shipbuilding yards represented the highest level in Chinese shipbuilding history. The main shipbuilding yards included the Longjiang Shipyard inNanjingof East China'sJiangsu Province, the Qingjiang Shipyard in Huainan of East China'sAnhui Province, and the Beiqinghe Shipyard in East China's Shangdong Province, all of which boasted a large scale. There were handicrafts workshops that produced ship accessories, such as sails, ropes, and nails, to go with the shipbuilding industry. In addition, there was also a rigorous management system concerning the check, repair, and payment of ships. It was fitting that with such a strong shipbuilding industry,Zheng He' seven voyages to the western sea became possible.

In a word, after the previous two climaxes, shipbuilding in the Ming Dynasty experienced further improvement in shipbuilding technologies. The great achievements in shipbuilding during the Ming Dynasty represented an enormous contribution by the Chinese people to world civilization and human development.

Shipbuilding techniques in the Ancient Mediterranean

There is little evidence for the use of watercrafts in the Mediterranean before the Bronze Age. Iconographic and literary studies, however,suggest that during the Mesolithic times complex log rafts, as the ones that Hiram of Tyre used to send cedar to Solomon (I Kings 5:23), buoyed boats, as the ones described

by Pliny used to transport elephant from Calabria to Sicily (NH 8. 16) or bundle rafts, as we see in some depictions in Malta or, for example, on a Minoan gold ring found at Mochlos, Crete (McGrail, 2001, pag.103; Johnstone, 1988, pag. 59) were in use. These bundle rafts, which were widely used in Early Egypt and Mesopotamia, continued in use in many parts of the Mediterranean during all the

classical period as it is clearly shown in a graffito dated to the Roman Age from She´arim, in Israel, and in a boat representation from the

rock-painti ngs group of La Laja Alta, Southern Spain, dated probably to the end of the Second Millennium BC (Almagro-Gorbea, 1988, pag.

398; Barroso, 1980, pag. 42; Dams, 1984; Luzón, 1988, pag. 455). Nowadays, bundle rafts still in use in some marginal parts of the Mediterranean, in societies with long-standing indigenous traditions as for example in the Oristano Region, in Sardinia (McGrail, 2001, pag. 105; Riccardi, 1988, pag. 275-286).

By Neolithic times it is probable that seagoing extended logboats or even simple plank vessels were technologically possible and took part in the colonization of Islands as Crete, carrying the obsidian, a clear indicator of early sea

voyages (Johnstone, 1988, pag. 55). The direct evidence for these crafts, nevertheless, has to be found much later. Although there is evidence

for seagoing travels in the Early Bronze Age (c.3800-2000 BC) we only count with

iconographic material in order to interpret the type of vessels used at that time. The study of the lead models from Naxos, the terracotta models from Palaikastro and Mochlos or the depictions on the Cycladic “Frying Pans” suggests that the vessels used in the Early Bronze Age were either logboats extended in

height and length or planked boats with cargo capacity and probably propelled by oars and with a helmsman (McGrail, 2001, pag. 106- 111; Casson, 1995, pag. 30-39). Unfortunately, at present there are no excavated boats that

can prove or give more light on the shipbuilding

techniques used on these ships.

This iconographic and documentary evidence is more evident in the eastern Mediterranean at the beginning of 2000 BC, in what it is known as the Middle Bronze Age. This increase in the evidence comes associated to a growth in the

number of seafaring activities, especially in the Levant Coast and in Crete. It is also in this time when we find the first evidence for the use of the sail in the Mediterranean, although it was probably in use much earlier in the late

fourth millennium BC in Egypt. This first evidence is a Syrian cylinder seal from Tel el Daba (1800 BC). From these times are also the first depictions of masts and rigging features in the Mediterranean. They are on a series of Minoan seals dated to the beginning of the second millennium BC. On them, the mast appears amidships but normally the sail is not

shown. The hull used to be rounded with a higher end (may be the stern?) and they could have been propelled also by human force if

we interpret the angular lines underneath the

hull as oars (McGrail, 2001, pag. 113;

Wachsmann, 1998).

But, without doubt, the representations that have raised more discussion on the Middle Bronze Age seafaring scene are those ones found at Akrotiri, in Thera. Leaving aside the controversies about its precise chronology or about the meaning of the scene itself, we have here vessels with a flat bottom whose ends

curve upwards. The stern is slightly higher than the bow. They were probably plank boats, built with plank-first techniques. Whether if they had sewn fastenings or mortise and tenon ones, is impossible to tell from these depictions.

They could be propelled by sail, oar or paddle, and were steered by a steering oar when it was necessary (McGrail, 2001, pag. 122).

Although there have been many interpretations for the purposes of these ships (Wachsmann, 1980, pag. 287-295), their peculiarities, as for example the decoration, the stern cabin or the central awning, the old fashioned method of

propulsion (paddling) and the stern projections (Casson, 1975, pag. 3-10), suggest that they were taking part in a sort of special event or ceremony instead of being intended for long- distance crossings.

Sometimes, the practical and technical shipbuilding methodology is placed in the

background when facing profound cultur al

manifestations or needs (Adams, 2001). We can appreciate in this example how the society exerts a big influence on the use of boats, and

therefore, in the way they were depicted.

Mortise and tenon plank fastenings

The end of the Middle Bronze Age is usually

taken to be the fall down of the Minoan

“thalassocracy” based on Crete. This event is

been related to the volcanic explosion of the

Island of Thera dated to 1628 BC and by

Egyptian correlation to 1450 – 1500 BC. Thanks

to the excavation of several eastern

Mediterranean wrecks dated between 1550-

1100 BC, the evidence and data that we have

from the Late Bronze Age is more extensive,

making the picture more complex at the same

time. Two of these shipwrecks, The Cape

Gelidonya and the Uluburun (1200 and 1300

BC respectively), excavated off the south-west

Turkish coast by George Bass, are the first

planked vessels remains to have survived. The

planking of both ships was fastened together

by mortise and tenon joints, with the tenons

locked in position by treenails (McGrail, 2006,

pag. 60) (Plate 1). The Romans called to this

way of joinery Coagmenta punicana, which

means “the Phoenician joint”, and it may have

been transferred to the eastern Mediterranean

World from Egypt via the Levant The earliest

known use of this type of joints in the Levant

region is in a table from a middle of the second

millennium BC tomb at Jericho. (Casson, 1995

This fastening technique, certainly, is quite

similar to the one used in Egypt in the third

and early second millennium BC. The Egyptian

mortise and tenon joints, however, were not

locked. Therefore, it was used together with

other types of fastenings in order to give more

rigidity to the hull. One example of this is the

Cheops Ship (2600 BC). Her cedar planking

was fastened together by unlocked mortise

and tenon and, mainly, by two types of lashings:

between adjacent strakes and, transversally,

from sheer to sheer (McGrail, 2001, pag. 26-

54; 2006, pag. 58) (Plate 2). In 1850 BC the

boats found at Dashur also had unlocked

mortise and tenon joints, which were deeper

than those in Cheops, and some of the objects

found with them had locked ones. As Haldane

has suggested (1996) is more than probable

that this way of shipbuilding went on in Egypt

for millennia and it was not until when the

strong influence of the phoenicians was felt in

the Eastern Mediterranean that the Egyptians

began to build their vessels with locked mortise

and tenon. One example of this is the mid-first

millennium Egyptian boat found at Matariya,

which not only has locked mortise and tenon

plank fastenings but also contains frames

(McGrail, 2001, pag. 40).

The Phoenicians could have developed

therefore this technique of using locked mortise

and tenon fastenings (influenced by the

Egyptians), which gives to the hull more

structure integrity, around the Middle Bronze

Age. The wrecks of Cape Gelidonya and

Uluburun, according to the current evidence

available, were Levantine in origin (Bass, 1997,

pag. 269; Wachsmann, 1998, pag. 206-208).

Then, with the enrichment of their city-states

in the Levant coast and the consequent

development of their maritime trade among

the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond, this

technique was widespread and generally used

by the mid-first millennium BC.

During the fourth and third centuries BC Greek

culture and technology dominated the eastern

and central Mediterranean while Rome began

to gain force in the Italian Peninsula. From this

period we have a wreck site found off the shore

of Cyprus, near Kyrenia, that represents the

general nautical features that were to persist

for half a century or so in the Mediterranean:

Shell-first construction, planking fastened

together by locked mortise and tenon

fastenings and framing mostly fastened to the

planking by metal nails. The Kyrenia ship (300

BC) is quite similar in shape to the one found

in Ma´agan-Micheal (400 BC) off the Levant

coast but her hull is solely fastened by mortise

and tenon joints, without the help of any sewing

technique. The Ma´agan-Micheal wreck

presents sewing fastenings at the bow and

the stern what has been interpreted as to gain

further strengthening of the hull and to prevent

lateral opening of the strakes on the sides

(Kahanov, 2004, pag. 45).

The continuity of sewing techniques

During the mid-first millennium BC, however,

most of the archaeological evidence that we

have from wrecks, especially from the Central

and Western Mediterranean, suggest a rather

different picture. Several ships dated from the

sixth century BC right into Roman times, which

are either fully or partially sewn, have been

excavated in the last decades giving new light

and more complexity to the study of watercrafts

in the Mediterranean World. Ancient sources

as for example Homer (Iliad 2:135; Odyssey

5:234-257)), Virgil (Aeneid 6.413-414) or Pliny

(NH 24-65), suggest that Greek fleets had sewn

planking and that the use of sewn techniques

remained in Classical times (Casson, 1995,

pag. 43-68). The wrecks dated to this period

have been found off the Easter n Mediterranean

shores, as the mentioned Ma´agan-Michael

wreck; in Italy, as the ships of Giglio, Gela or

in the Venice Lagoon; France, as for example

the shipwreck Bon-Porté or Place Jules-Verne,

in Marseilles (Plate 3); and in Spain, as the

greek wreck of Cala Sant Vicenç, off the

northern coast of the Island of Mallorca (Nieto,

2002), or the seventh century BC Carthaginian

wreck of Playa de La Isla (Negueruela,.1995),

although this latter only has lashed framing

whereas her planking is fastened together by

mortise and tenon joints.

Sewing techniques were still

in use during Roman times

until the Medieval Period as

we can see in the wrecks of

Cavaliere (100 BC), Jeanne-

Garde B (Second century BC)

or in the Cap Bear C

shipwreck (First century BC).

In these times, when the

mortise and tenon technique

was the main way of plank

joinery and the influence of

frames within the hull

construction was growing,

sewing was used mostly for

repairs and in areas of the

vessel where leaks were most

likely to occur (underwater hull

and ends) (McGrail, 2001, pag.

138). Nevertheless, several

entire sewn-plank boats have

been excavated from coastal

sites in the Adriatic, in Croatia,

and in the delta of the River

Po despite the advances in

nautical technology (Plate 4).

Probably, these late sewn-

vessels are the answer of

indigenous societies to their

environment and to the

importance of their

economical position within the

Mediterranean community.

Normally they are found in

rivers, lakes, lagoons or deltas,

being very improbable their

use in long-distance voyages

At first, mortise and tenon

joints were used together with

sewn fastenings. With the

improvement of woodworking

in the Eastern Mediterranean

Sea, the technique of locked

mortise and tenon joints was

used as the only plank

fastening in the hull. Also, the

subsequent change to metal-

fastened frames instead of being lashed needed better skills

in the way the timber was elaborate. The development of these

techniques increased the cohesiveness of the planking shell,

both in strength and watertightness (McGrail, 2001, pag. 148).

These changes in the hull structure and in the shipbuilding

techniques from mid-second century until the Roman times

are directly related to the social and cultural transformations

that were going on in the Mediterranean World. The growth of

the cities-states in the Levant Coast and in The Aegean region

and the increase in the maritime trade competence led to the

necessity of more rigid vessels, with major capacity and better

manoeuvrability. This also led to a need of protection of the

trading goods and of the wealth of the cities-states. As McGrail

has pointed out, some of these changes would have been

stimulated by warship requirements. A ship built shell-first with

a fastening system of locked mortise and tenon would have

been “a better fighting machine than one with sewn-planking

and lashed framing” (2001, pag. 148).

Transition from Shell to Skeleton Construction

The Roman Age, from mid-second century BC

to the fourth century AD, was characterized in

nautical technology by a general continuity in

building techniques from the Hellenistic period

(Muckelroy, 1978, pag. 65-75; McGrail, 2001,

pag. 154; León & Domingo, 1992, pag. 199-

218). To this period belongs most of the

archaeological evidence that we have from

Mediterranean shipwrecks. And, certainly, the

increasing domination of Rome over the

Mediterranean World, defeating Greece and

Carthage at the end of the first millennium BC,

influenced in the quantity and quality of the

ships the were built at this time.

During this period, apart from small boats

which followed the same shipbuilding

techniques observed in the Kyrenia Wreck, the

increasing demand for cargo space can be

seen in the bigger tonnage of the merchant

ships. Examples of this are the first century

BC shipwrecks of La Madrague de Giens (400

tonnes) or Albenga (500-600 tonnes) (Parker,

1992). This resulted in the use of thicker

planking or in the construction of a hull with

inner and outer planking leaving some wool or

other fabric saturated in wax in between. This

would has given more strength to the hull

structure and integrity (Steffy, 1994, pag. 62-

65; León & Domingo, 1992, pag. 199-218),

being thus more capable or carrying bigger

and heavier cargoes. At the same time, planking

strength was increased, either in double-

planking ships or in single-planking ones, with

the use of more fastenings per unit length, as

we see in wrecks like La Madrague de Giens

or Antikythera I, in Greece (First century BC)

(McGrail, 2001, pag. 156). With these greater

hulls we also observe an increase in size of

the frames an in its use. They are internal and

discontinuous and begin to be fastened to the

keel giving more structural strength to the

vessel.

While the construction technique of shell-first

was still generally used in the Mediterranean

in shipbuilding, we begin to have some

evidence from the third and fourth century AD

of the new importance given to the frames in

determining the ship’s lines (Muckelroy, 1978,

pag. 64). At the end of this period there were

several changes in the social and economic

prevailing systems along the roman

Mediterranean that were reflected in the

technology used in shipbuilding (León &

Domingo, 1992, pag. 199-218). Certainly, there

was a tendency during the Roman Empire to

look for less costly and faster methods of

construction, giving less importance to the

durability of the vessel herself (Muckelroy,

1978, pag. 65; Casson, 1995, pag. 141-148;

McGrail, 2001, pag. 158). With the decline in

slavery at the en of the Roman Empire, the

expensiveness of shipbuilding process

increased making the ship-owners prefer

smaller and cheaper vessels. Wrecks of big

merchant ships are uncommon after the second

century AD. Furthermore, other social and

natural factors that could have influenced this

change in ship technology could have been

for example: new types of goods that were

traded, improvements in tools and techniques

used for construction, deforestation or the

introduction of fore-and-aft sail, what would

have reduced also considerably the use of

human force in the propulsion of the ships

(McGrail, 2001, pag. 158).

All these social and economic changes can

be implied in the study of a wreck found off

Turkish shores, The Yassi Ada 2, dated to the

fourth century AD, and of other ones from the

fifth century AD such as Fiumicino I or Dramont

5 and 6 (Parker, 1992). These ships were small

cargo vessels, built shell-first with planking

fastened by mortise and tenon joints and

frames alternately floors and half-frames. The

major importance given to the frames can be

seen in the bigger distance that can be

appreciated between the joints and their smaller

size. Finally, we find mortises and tenon joints

not locked whose mere purpose was to help

the plank alignment, as it was when they first

appeared in Egypt.

The frame-first construction technique was

known by the Greeks in the fifth century BC,

as we can infer from Herodotus (1.194) but

only in relation to the building of skin boats

(Basch, 1972, pag. 47). It is, however, in the

seventh century AD when we find the first

archaeological evidence for ships built frame-

first. Wrecks as St. Gervais 2, Tantura I or

Pantano Longarini had their planking treenailed

and nailed to a pre-erected framing instead of

being fastened together (McGrail, 2001, pag.

161). Other wrecks, as Yassi Ada I (c. AD 625),

were plank-first built in their lower hull, while

frame-first in the upper part where there were

simpler shapes. By 1025 AD, the technique of

fastening planks by locked mortise and tenon

joints was abandoned almost completely. The

best evidence that we count with from this

period is the Serçe Limano wreck, entirely built

frame-first (Steffy, 1994, pag. 85-91) (Plate 6).

The consequences of frame-first construction

can be followed during the next centuries, with

the disintegration of the Roman Empire and

the development of the Medieval Europe. The

technological changes that have happened

during the first centuries AD were influenced

by the new social and economic systems that

were being shaped at that moment. Now, the

new shipbuilding method of frame-first

construction, consequence of the continuous

social interaction with the technology, was

going to play an important role in the history

of the incoming centuries. Frame-first

construction made possible to build bigger

ships in a quicker way. The resulting vessels

had more seaworthy hulls appropriate for the

ocean crossings that later on were going to

take place (McGrail, 2001, pag. 160; Muckelroy,

1978, pag. 65; León & Domingo, 1992, pag.

199-218).

Bibliography ADAMS, J. (2001): 鉄hips and boats as archaeological source material・, World Archaeology. 32(3). NIETO, Xavier; et al. (2002): 摘l pecio de Cala Sant Vicen・, Revista de arqueolog僘 258 PARKER, A.J. (1992): Ancient Shipwrecks of the Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces, BAR. International Series 580, Oxford. REY DA SILVA, Arturo (2006): Boats of the Iberian Peninsula in Prehistor y. The Iconographic evidence, Unpublished MA Dissertation, WESTERDAHL, C. (1994): 溺aritime cultures and ship types: brief comments on the significance of maritime archaeology・, International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 23(4). McGRAIL, S. (2006): Ancient Boats and Ships.

Original work By :

Arturo rAY dA sILWA.

http://www.crystalinks.com/indiaships.html

http://www1.chinaculture.org/created/2005-06/21/content_69882_3.htm

http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_agraw_ships_frameset.htm

(This is just a collection and not a orignal work by this blogger and not for any commertial use and mare a collection of articles at one place)

Nandkishore s Gitte.