Life at SEA

”Fraudulent entries in ORBs is rising exponentially

2011-11-04T19:27:00.002+05:30

The Oily Water Separator (OWS) was first mandated for installation on ships by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) in

1974. At the same time, a requirement was established for maintenance

of an Oil Record Book (ORB) to keep track of use of the OWS and

disposal of the ship’s oily waste. The OWS was originally designed to

reduce the oil in discharge water to 100 parts per million. Ships could

discharge waste water that contained up to that level of oil so long as

the ship was underway, at least a certain distance offshore, and not in a

particularly sensitive area. The equipment operated reasonably well and

the program was largely self-enforced. Life was good.

In 1992, though, the discharge standard was strengthened to 15 parts

per million. Problems surfaced immediately. The OWS equipment was

not operating properly. Filters regularly clogged and discharges ceased

frequently. Meanwhile, waste water levels in the bilges were rising. It

turned out that many OWS manufacturers had merely fine-tuned their

old 100 ppm devices to achieve the new 15 ppm requirement. This was

achievable on a test platform in the factory, but frequently failed on a

ship at sea. Life was no longer good, at least for chief engineers, who had

to manage this problem while keeping the ship operating.

Things changed drastically on February 1

1993, when a routine

U.S. Coast Guard air patrol observed a long sheen of oil streaming

astern of a cruise ship on the high seas off Florida. Review of the ship’s

ORB when the ship arrived in port revealed that no entry had been

made relative to this discharge. When the flag state declined to take

action, the U.S. government charged with cruise ship operator with

making a false statement to a federal official. The operator litigated

this and a related case, arguing, among other things, that there was no

violation of federal law since both the discharge and the ORB entry were

made while the ship was on the high seas. The court held, though, that

the false statement occurred when the ORB was presented for Coast

Guard examination while the ship was in a U.S. port. After losing the

procedural motions, the cruise ship operator settled this criminal charge

by payment of USD 9 million and, in the related case, by payment of

USD 18 million. No other shipowner or operator has litigated an ORB

charge since those highly expensive events. Life was no longer good for

chief engineers, masters, or shipowners.

Many in the maritime industry are beginning to view the ORB as

a signed confession. The number of prosecutions in the United States

for fraudulent entries in ORBs is rising exponentially and fines have

recently skyrocketed. In the years 1998 through 2001, research has

revealed one prosecution in each year for oil record book violations. In

2002, there were seven prosecutions – and four of those were against

individual chief engineers. In 2003, nine prosecutions, four of which

were again against individual chief engineers. In 2004, there were seven

prosecutions, and only two were directed at individual chief engineers.

Through September, nine companies and nine individuals have been

prosecuted during 2005. Criminal fines to date have totaled USD

82,716,000. Shipping companies are also being required to implement

court-supervised compliance programs.

Under federal law, a false statement consists of

1) making a statement orally or in writing;

2) when the statement is false or misleading;

3) the false or misleading information is material;

4) the statement or concealment was made knowingly; and

5) the statement was made to a federal official engaged in

performance of his or her duty.

Here, the statement was made in the ORB, which the ship is required

to maintain and is required to present to the Coast Guard upon request

when the ship is in U.S. waters. If the federal government can prove that

the chief engineer or another senior person in the ship knew that one or

more entries in the ORB (which the person in charge of the operation is

required to initial) is false and that the false entry was made knowingly,

then the company can be held criminally responsible. The individuals

making the false entry (generally the chief engineer and the master) can

also be held criminally responsible.

Because the ORB bears the initials of the person making each entry

and the signature of the master, the document serves the purpose of a

signed confession, for which there is almost no defense.

To minimize the likelihood that the chief engineer or another engineering officer on the ship improperly disposes of the waste oil, the

company should take positive steps to ensure that the OWS is operating

properly and is well maintained. This will often require replacement of

the OWS, particularly if the unit is more than about seven years old. The

chief engineer should be clearly informed (preferably in writing) that his

or her primary goal in this regard is to properly handle and dispose of

waste oil and that the general admonition to minimize expenses does

Record Book entries regarding discharge of

oily water.

As can be seen from the descriptions of

the foregoing cases, (1) both owners in their

corporate forms and individuals are being

charged and convicted, and (2) none of the

cases are going to trial, but are being resolved

by means of guilty pleas, that is, admissions

in court and on the public record that the

defendants have engaged in the criminal conduct

with which they have been charged, and are prepared to

endure the consequences. In the face of the possibility of even more severe

sanctions than those following a guilty plea,

defendants have not been willing to take these

matters to trial.not apply to this goal. Also,

personnel should be clearly advised of the requirement that log and record

entries are to be made contemporaneously

with the event and are to be accurate.

A preferred method of accomplishing

both tasks is for the company to institute a

maritime compliance program. Federal law

provides that, if a company has a qualifying

compliance program in place and a violation

occurs regardless, the company will be entitled to a major reduction in sentence. One

major cruise ship company benefi ted from

this provision when it was proven that some

of its personnel had engaged in improper

discharge of waste oil and falsifi cation of

the ORB. Both the Department of Justice

and the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA) have written policies providing that,

in appropriate cases, they will forego criminal prosecution for companies with compliance programs. The EPA has exercised such

forbearance in the past, although not yet in

a maritime context.

The bottom line is that, for a shipowner

or operator to avoid handing the federal

government a signed confession in the form

of an oil record book with false entries, the

owner or operator must impress upon its

engineering offi cers that they are to properly maintain and operate the OWS and

to make accurate and contemporaneous

entries in the ORB. The engineering offi cers, particularly the chief engineer, must be

given every incentive to do the right thing

and no incentive to do the wrong thing.

The Consequences

Criminal convictions, including plea agreements, can bring with them not only substantial fi nes, but possible prison terms, the banning of personnel from entering the United

States or serving on vessels calling at United

States ports, and stringent environmental

compliance programs which the United States

government will supervise. Investigators will

also detain the vessels for indefi nite periods

and crew members may be held as material

witnesses long after the ship is allowed to sail.

The fi nancial implications of such detentions

of ships and personnel are obvious and substantial.

Recent incident:

Transmar Shipping Co, S.A., the operator of the cargo ship M/V New Fortune, pleaded

guilty in federal court in Oakland today to failing to maintain an Oil Record Book and making a false

statement to the U.S. Coast Guard, United States Attorney Joseph P. Russoniello announced. The vessel’s

Chief Engineer Dimitrios Dimitrakis pleaded guilty to failing to maintain an Oil Record Book, and the

Second Engineer Volodymyr Dombrovskyy pleaded guilty to aiding and abetting the failure to maintain an

accurate Oil Record Book. These guilty pleas stem from the defendants’ overboard disposal of oil residue,

sludge, oil and oily mixtures into the ocean and their subsequent efforts to conceal these discharges by

falsifying their onboard records.

“This prosecution evidences our determination to protect the environment from the unlawful discharge of

waste oil from ships, a major source of pollution to ocean and inland waters,” said U.S. Attorney Joseph P.

Russoniello. “Companies need to understand that there are criminal consequences for attempting to deceive

government regulators by providing false documents to authorities to avoid compliance with environmental

laws.”

According to Court documents, the M/V New Fortune is a 26,136 gross ton ocean-going bulk cargo ship that

is registered in the Marshall Islands. It was engaged in the carriage of bulk products in world-wide

commerce. Following the ship’s trans-Pacific journey from South Korea to the Port of Oakland, U.S. Coast

Guard inspectors boarded the vessel for a routine inspection. At that time, crew members advised the

inspectors that illegal activities were taking place onboard, and came forward to reveal that the crew was

using a “magic hose” to dispose of the vessels’ oil-containing waste overboard, bypassing the vessel’s

pollution prevention equipment. Further investigation by the Coast Guard and the U.S. Environmental

Protection Agency’s Criminal Investigation Division revealed waste oil in the overboard piping of the M/V

New Fortune and also uncovered evidence of false entries made in the vessel’s Oil Record Book, a documen

required by MARPOL, a treaty ratified and implemented by the United States and other countries.

MARPOL, which stands for marine pollution, and U.S. law limit the oil content of overboard discharges

from ships to not more than 15 parts per million. To ensure compliance, MARPOL requires that all transfers

of sludge, oil contaminated bilge water, and overboard discharges of bilge water, be fully and accurately

recorded in the Oil Record Book.

“We consider failure to comply with MARPOL to be an insult to the seas and the citizens of the world. We

work hard to make clear we have no tolerance for such behavior and we will hold accountable those that

violate MARPOL,” said Capt. Paul Gugg, commander of the Coast Guard's San Francisco Sector.

Court documents further state that Chief Engineer Dimitrakis and Second Engineer Dombrovskyy were

onboard the M/V New Fortune from March 1, 2009 through Feb. 16, 2010, when the ship came into port in Oakland. Dimitrakis held overall responsibility for the engine room where the bypass hose was used and the

pollution prevention equipment was located and Dombrovskyy worked in the engine room under Dimitrakis.

Dimitrakis and Dombrovskyy admitted that they regularly ordered M/V New Fortune crew members to

bypass the vessel’s oil pollution prevention equipment through the illegal use of a bypass hose and

discharged oil-contaminated bilge water and sludge directly into the ocean. Dimitrakis also admitted that he

concealed this disposal by regularly making false entries and omissions in the vessel’s Oil Record Book.

Dombrovskyy admitted that he disposed of the “magic hose” before entering the waters of the United States

in order to conceal that they had used it to discharge of sludge and bilge water directly overboard.

According to court documents, on a number of occasions, Dimitrakis and Dombrovskyy ordered crew

members to operate the bypass hose and pumps at night while on the high seas. Dimitrakis and

Dombrovskyy ordered crew members to disconnect and hide the bypass hose prior to entering United States

waters and ports, as well as ports in other locations.

According to court documents, Dimitrakis made false entries into the Oil Record Book indicating that the

ship’s Oil Water Separator was being used, creating the overall false impression that the vessel was being

properly operated and that they were properly maintaining the vessel’s Oil Record Book. No entries were

made in the ship’s Oil Record Book indicating the direct discharge of bilge water and sludge from the ship

into the ocean.

Court documents further state that on Feb. 16, 2010, during the Coast Guard’s inspection, the M/V New

Fortune crew presented the false Oil Record Book to the U.S. Coast Guard during the vessels’ United States

port call in Oakland.

After accepting the guilty plea, U.S. District Judge D. Lowell Jensen sentenced Transmar to pay a fine of

$750,000, an additional community service payment of $100,000, and ordered it to follow an environmental

compliance plan agreed to by the parties. TRANSMAR is required to develop, fund, and implement a

comprehensive, fleet-wide environmental compliance plan to ensure future compliance aboard all of its

vessels. As part of the plan, Transmar will, among other things, designate a corporate compliance manager to

oversee implementation of the plan, develop an environmental manual for all ships, fully train employees,

and hire an outside environmental consultant who will conduct compliance audits of Transmar ships.

Dombrovskyy was sentenced to two years probation, a $500 fine, and a $100 special assessment.

Dimitrakis is scheduled to be sentenced on Sept. 3, 2010, before the Honorable D. Lowell Jensen in

Oakland. The maximum statutory penalty for a violation of 33 U.S.C. § 1908(a) is six years imprisonment

and a $250,000 fine. However, any sentence following conviction would be imposed by the court after

consideration of the U.S. Sentencing Guidelines and the federal statute governing the imposition of a

sentence, 18 U.S.C. § 3553.

This case is being prosecuted by Chinhayi Cadet, Assistant U.S. Attorney for the Northern District of

California, and Trial Attorney Lana Pettus for the Environmental Crimes Section in the Justice Department’s

Environment and Natural Resources Division with the assistance of Jeanne Carstensen. The prosecution is

the result of an investigation by the U.S. Coast Guard Investigative Service, the U.S. Coast Guard Sector San

Francisco Port State Control Inspections Office, and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Criminal

Investigation Division, with assistance from the U.S. Coast Guard District Eleven Legal Office.

Nandkishore Gitte

MARITIME MOTIVATOR - VOL-2

2011-10-29T22:00:00.006+05:30

Beauty lies in the Difficulties.

Life Onboard a ship can be very beautiful and can be very difficult. We must appreciate the beauty so much that the difficulties cannot bring us down.

The way we deal with shipboard stress is not to avoid them. The way is to successfully deal with those difficulties and to overwhelm them.

Be more persistent than your most persistent problems. Use your creativity, your flexibility, your ingenuity and your passion to make your way forward no matter what.

Treasure the beauty in even the smallest, most seemingly insignificant things. Connect with the abundance that is woven through every fiber of life.

See each moment as an opportunity to make a small difference. Those small steps you make forward will soon add up to create big results.

Life can at times be difficult, but so what? The immense beauty of sea and possibilities for joy are worth far more than all the troubles combined.

Nandkishore Gitte.

MARITIME MOTIVATOR

2010-01-16T18:46:00.001+05:30

Motivation is the inner power or energy that pushes one toward performing a certain action. Motivation has much to do with desire and ambition, and if they are absent, motivation is absent too. Often, a person has the desire and ambition to get something done or achieve a certain goal, but lacks the push, the initiative and the willingness to take action. This shows a lack of motivation and inner drive. Motivation strengthens the ambition, increases initiative and gives direction, courage, energy and the persistence to follow one's goals. A motivated person takes action and do whatever it needs to achieve his/her goals. Motivation is usually strong, when one has a vision, a clear mental image of a certain situation or achievement, and also a strong desire to materialize it. In this case motivation pushes one forward, toward taking action and making the vision a reality. Motivation can be applied to every action and goal. There could be motivation to study a foreign language, to get good grades at school, bake a cake, write a poem, take a walk everyday, make more money, get a better job, buy a new house, own a business or become a writer, a doctor or a lawyer. Motivation is present whenever there is a clear vision, precise knowledge of what one wants to do, a strong desire and faith in one's abilities. Actually, motivation is one of the most important keys to success. Lack of motivation either does not bring results or brings only mediocre results, whereas motivation brings faster, better and bigger results. Compare a student who lacks motivation and who hardly studies, to a student who is highly motivated, and who devotes many hours to his studies. They will get absolutely different grades. Seafarers , who are socially cut off from Land needs it the most, to perform there task at hands in adverse condition at sea and growing commercial pressures. MARITIME MOTIVATOR is just an attempt to boost there morals. Nandkishore Gitte.

MARITIME MOTIVATOR - VOL-1

2010-01-16T17:45:00.003+05:30

What is like working onboard? For some, it is just standing and watching the traffic at sea, Taking rounds in Engine room, Job satisfaction. For others, it's caring for a there family. Paying for kids tuitions , planning for future/retirements.

Work is the business of life. We all do it, whether we collect a paycheck or not. It is what keeps us alive, and what moves us forward. There is no menial work. It is all important. Weather we are Captain, Chief engineer. Boson, or a cadet.

In all work, there is the potential for fulfillment, because there is the opportunity to make a difference. It may be keeping watch, navigating, chipping on deck, or painting bulkhead. The more of yourself you put into your work, the more your work will accomplish. Put your hands into your work, and it will keep you alive. Put your mind into it, and it will provide a life. Put your essence into it, and it will bring enormous rewards.

You affect the value of your work, not so much by what you do, but by what you give to the effort.

Nandkishore Gitte

Ancient Shipbuilding Techniques

2009-10-10T19:47:00.008+05:30

The study of ancient shipbuilding techniques and their

development in the ancient era has mainly been based upon a

technical analysis of the archaeological and historical evidence

available, concluding normally in a sort of logical and linear

evolution. However, the new perspective given to the research

of ancient maritime societies by the growing discipline of maritime

archaeology and the study of the most recent archaeological finds

leas us to reconsider the development of nautical technology

in Antiquity and to understand the importance of the social

component in its historical evolution.

Introduction

The different techniques used during the Ancient World in

shipbuilding have long been assumed to manifest a sort of

linear “evolution”. The research on ancient watercrafts and the

field of maritime archaeology in itself, until very recently, have

studied and interpreted boats remains with a mere

technical approach. Hence, the overview that has traditionally

been given of the development of naval technology in the Ancient

Mediterranean, from the first evidences of bundle rafts in Egypt

to the construction of big plank boats, firstly using sewn joints

as The Cheops Ship (2600 BC) and then the mortise.and tenon

fastenings technique, used forinstance in The Kyrenia Ship in

Cyprus (300BC), is that of a consecutive and related process.

In the last decade, however, the maritime archaeology discipline

and the study of ancient boats have broadened its scope looking

for the social patterns and anthropological traits behind the

evident material culture.Furthermore, new archaeological finds

and other sort of evidences are showing us that the nautical

scene of the Ancient Mediterranean Sea was rather more complex

than we had thought. Although it appears evident that shipbuilding

techniques among mediterranean communities moved towards

improvements in the manoeuvrability and the rigidity of the vessels,

we often find that technology is restricted by the society that

uses it, together with its socioeconomic systems, and also by

the environment where they interact (Westerdahl, 1992 & 1994; Adams,

2001). Factors such as religion, tradition, political or economic

system, which are in continuous relation with themselves, shape and

constrain the ideas, symbols and uses that a specific society gives

to its watercrafts.

Despite technological progresses in the mediterranean region new

evidence shows that sewn-plank boats continued to be widely in use

from the late centuries BC, in Roman times and even earlier, to the

eleventh century AD, right into the medieval period . At the same

time, from the first century BC we can perceive a progressive

abandonment in the use of the mortise and tenon fastenings, gaining

crucial importance the internal structure

of framing and longitudinal timbers. This appears to be clear in

the evidence from the seventh century AD. By the beginning of the

eleventh century AD the old shipbuilding technique of shell-first

construction was completely abandoned and shifted to frame-first

techniques, which were to be of great influence in the new social

and political situation of Europe from the medieval period onwards.

Throughout this article it will be examined how the continuity of

sewn fastenings and the ship construction to framing-first

techniques evidence on the transition from shell-fir

scan tell us about the social implications that their raised the

shipbuilding techniques used in the An use entails. For that

purpose it will be briefly sum ancient Mediterranean until the

Medieval Period and some of the evidence we have of relationship

between ship technology and them, analysing some specific examples

to approach this better understanding of the society in the Ancient

World.

Shipbuilding techniques & Navigation in Ancient India.

An Ancient India there existed a strange belief that if any Hindu crossed the seas, he would lose his religion. When and why this belief came into being is not known. But taking a close look at out nation's maritime history we find evidence of a very large number of Indians who should have had lost their religion as they had crossed the seas to trade and build empires in distant lands.
Not only did these enterprising Indians, not lose their religion but they made India into one of the foremost maritime nations of those days and spread Indian culture overseas.
In those days India had colonies, in Cambodia (Kambuja in Sanskrit) in Java, (Chavakam or Yava dwipa) in Sumatra, in Borneo, Socotra (Sukhadhara) and even in Japan. Indian traders had established settlements in Southern China, in the Malayan Peninsula, in Arabia, in Egypt, in Persia, etc., Through the Persians and Arabs, India had cultivated trade relations with the Roman Empire.

Sanskrit and Pali literature has innumerable references to the maritime activity of Indians in ancient times. There is also one treatise in Sanskrit, named Yukti Kalpa Taru which has been compiled by a person called Bhoja Narapati. (The Yukti Kalpa Taru (YKT) had been translated and published by Prof. Aufrecht in his 'Catalogue of Sanskrit Manu scripts. An excellent study of the YKT had been undertaken by Dr. Radha Kumud Mookerji entitled 'Indian Shipping'. Published by Orient Longman, Bombay in 1912.)

A panel found at Mohenjodaro, depicting a sailing craft. Vessels were of many types Their construction is vividly described in the Yukti Kalpa Taru an ancient Indian text on Ship-building.

This treatise gives a technocratic exposition on the technique of shipbuilding. It sets forth minute details about the various types of ships, their sizes, the materials from which they were built. The Yukti Kalpa Taru sums up in a condensed form all the available information

The Yukti Kalpa Taru gives sufficient information and date to prove that in ancient times, Indian shipbuilders had a good knowledge of the materials which were used in building ships. Apart from describing the qualities of the different types of wood and their suitability in shipbuilding, the Yukti Kalpa Taru also gives an elaborate classification of ships based on their size.

The primary division is into 2 classes viz. Samanya (ordinary) and Vishesha (Special). The ordinary type for sea voyages. Ships that undertook sea voyages were classified into, Dirgha type of ships which had a long and narrow hull and the Unnata type of ships which had a higher hull.

The treatise also gives elaborate directions for decorating and furnishing the ships with a view to making them comfortable for passengers. Also mentioned are details about the internal seating and accommodation to be provided on the ships. Three classes of ships are distinguished according to their length and the position of cabins. The ships having cabins extending from one end of the deck to the other are called Sarvamandira vessels.

These ships are recommended for the transport of royal treasure and horses. The next are the Madhyamarnandira vessels which have cabins only in the middle part of their deck. these vessels are recommended for pleasure trips. And finally there is a category of Agramandira vessels, these ships were used mainly in warfare.

There were Sanskrit terms for many parts of a ship. The ship's anchor was known as Nava-Bandhan-Kilaha which literally means 'A Nail to tie up a ship' . The sail was called Vata Vastra a which means 'wind-cloth'. The hull was termed StulaBhaga i.e. an'expanded area'. The rudder was called Keni-Pata, Pata means blade; the rudder was also known as Karna which literally means a 'ear' and was so called because it used to be a hollow curved blade, as is found today in exhaust fans. The ship's keel was called Nava-Tala which means 'bottom of a ship'. The mast was known as Kupadanda, in which danda means a pole.

Even a sextant was used for navigation and was called Vruttashanga-Bhaga. But what is more surprising is that even a contrived mariner's compass was used by Indian navigators nearly 1500 to 2000 years ago. This claim is not being made in an overzealous nationalistic spirit. This has in fact been the suggestion of an European expert, Mr. J.L. Reid, who was a member of the Institute of Naval Architects and Shipbuilders in England at around the beginning of the present century. This is what Mr. Reid has said in the Bombay Gazetteer, vol. xiii., Part ii., Appendix A.

"The early Hindu astrologers are said to have used the magnet, in fixing the North and East, in laying foundations, and other religious ceremonies. The Hindu compass was an iron fish that floated in a vessel of oil and pointed to the North. The fact of this older Hindu compass seems placed beyond doubt by the Sanskrit word Maccha Yantra, or fish machine, which Molesworth gives as a name for the mariner's compass".

It is significant to note that these are the words of a foreign Naval Architect and Shipbuilding Expert. It is thus quite possible that the Maccha Yantra (fish machine) was transmitted to the west by the Arabs to give us the mariner's compass of today.

Shipbuilding in Ancient China

With a long coastline stretching along the broad water areas of Bohai, Huanghai, Donghai, and Nanhai, and bordering the world's largest ocean, the Pacific Ocean, China enjoys a special water environment. Hence, Chinese people began to engage in seafaring activities a long time ago. Chinese shipbuilding boasts an even longer history, as it began in primeval times.
As early as in the Neolithic Age (about 10,000-4,000 years ago), Chinese people had begun to made canoes and rafts, and with their courage and wisdom, had traveled the ocean. Textual research has proved that the ancient Baiyue people, who lived in Southeast China, invented the first water-bound vehicle.

During the Qin (221-206) and Han (206BC-220AD) dynasties, China's shipbuilding witnessed the first climax, when the Qin EmperorQin Shihuangorganized a fleet capable of transporting 500,000 shi (1 shi = 170 pounds /71.7 kilos) of grain in a war. As recorded in ancient books, Emperor Qin Shihuang once led a fleet composed of lou chuan (castle ships, or war ships with deck castles) for an assault on the Chu State. After the unification of all of China, he also cruised along inland rivers and navigated at sea.
By theHan Dynasty, the navy mainly composed of castle ships was much stronger. It was said that the Han government could mobilize over 2,000 castle ships and 200,000 seamen for one battle. Various kinds of warships could be found, such as Xian Deng -- an assault ship, Meng Chong -- a narrow warship for striking the enemy's warships, and Ben Ma -- a ship as fast as a galloping horse. However, the assault castle ship was still the most important among all the ships and constituted the main force of the navy. Apart from being famous, the castle ship was also the symbol for the dynasty's advanced shipbuilding techniques.
The development in shipbuilding during the Qin and Han dynasties laid a solid foundation for the progress in shipbuilding skills in the following dynasties. The Wu State of theThree Kingdoms Period(220-280) had a prosperous shipbuilding industry and once built a five-story ship that could hold up to 3,000 soldiers. TheSouthern Dynasty(420-589) could build big ships with a holding capacity of 1,000 tons in the southern areas of theYangtze River. In order to enhance the ship's speed, the great scientist of the Southern Qi Dynasty (what year; I'm unfamiliar with this dynasty) invented the manpowered paddle wheel ship. Though not as efficient as using the sail, the paddle wheel ship was still recognized as a significant invention, which provided inspiration for the improvement of ship power later on.
China's shipbuilding industry entered a period of maturity, both in quantity and quality in the Tang (618-907) and Song (960-1279) dynasties. Utilization of many shipbuilding techniques, such as the stern helm, the highly efficient propelling tool - scull, and the sails, were further improved during this period. Besides, many more advanced techniques were also created. TheSui Dynasty, though short lived, enjoyed a highly developed shipbuilding industry, with the capacity to build giantdragonboats. Assembled with mortise-and-tenon joints, the dragon boats were much stronger than those connected with iron nails or bamboo nails.

Ships built during this period were larger in body, more reasonable in configuration, and more complex in techniques. Among the various ships for use on rivers (as opposed for seas or oceans), there were plenty of ships capable of holding 600 to 700 people, with a length of over 20 zhang (about 66 meters). On some ships, vegetables were grown. During the Song Dynasty, a huge ship named Shen Zhou was made, which boasted a carrying capacity of 1,500 tons and a hull length of 31.5 zhang (about 100 meters).
Ship design at that time applied the principle of "curved side boards, broad lateral beams, and loft superstructure." Under this principle, the decks were broadened, and more cabin space was available. The V-shaped bottom greatly facilitated the sailing.
The number of ships also increased by leaps and bounces, with an obvious increase in shipbuilding yards capable of building any kinds of ships, including river boats, sea boats, warships, and so on.
Apart from the above-mentioned features, shipbuilding techniques also experienced enormous advances. Mortise-and-tenon joints were employed in assembling ships, hence greatly improving the ships' strength. China's adoption of this technology was 500 years earlier than that in European countries. The Song artisans were able to make models based on the function and use of the ships to be built, with blueprints being worked out prior to carrying out the actual construction. Ship blueprints did not appear in European until 300 to 400 years later.
The paddle wheel ship, a kind of warship that emerged during the Southern Dynasty, also got improved. The paddle wheel ship got wooden wheels installed on both sides of the hull, which greatly increased the ship's speed. Since the ancient ships were mostly sailing ships that could not easily sail against wind or water, the development of paddle wheel ships solved the problem to a certain extent.
In the early years of the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368), there were more than 17,900 navy warships. The Yuan emperors would usually order thousands of warships to be built for a battle. Besides, there were a great many civil ships scattered all over the country. Meanwhile, Arabs' shipbuilding and navigation gradually declined. Therefore, Chinese four-mast sea boats could be seen on the Southern Sea and the Indian Ocean, taking the lead in navigation and shipbuilding.
The huge development in shipbuilding during the Yuan Dynasty laid an advantageous foundation for the building of five-mast warships, six-mast guest ships, seven-mast grain ships, eight-mast horse ships (which carried horses), and nine-mast precious ships (which carried valuable cargo) during theMing Dynasty.
China's shipbuilding reached its third climax during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), when an unprecedented number of ships were built by employing the well-developed shipbuilding technologies of the Tang and Song dynasties.

According to some archeological discoveries and historical records, the distribution and scale of the Ming Dynasty's shipbuilding yards represented the highest level in Chinese shipbuilding history. The main shipbuilding yards included the Longjiang Shipyard inNanjingof East China'sJiangsu Province, the Qingjiang Shipyard in Huainan of East China'sAnhui Province, and the Beiqinghe Shipyard in East China's Shangdong Province, all of which boasted a large scale. There were handicrafts workshops that produced ship accessories, such as sails, ropes, and nails, to go with the shipbuilding industry. In addition, there was also a rigorous management system concerning the check, repair, and payment of ships. It was fitting that with such a strong shipbuilding industry,Zheng He' seven voyages to the western sea became possible.
In a word, after the previous two climaxes, shipbuilding in the Ming Dynasty experienced further improvement in shipbuilding technologies. The great achievements in shipbuilding during the Ming Dynasty represented an enormous contribution by the Chinese people to world civilization and human development.

Shipbuilding techniques in the Ancient Mediterranean

There is little evidence for the use of watercrafts in the Mediterranean before the Bronze Age. Iconographic and literary studies, however,suggest that during the Mesolithic times complex log rafts, as the ones that Hiram of Tyre used to send cedar to Solomon (I Kings 5:23), buoyed boats, as the ones described
by Pliny used to transport elephant from Calabria to Sicily (NH 8. 16) or bundle rafts, as we see in some depictions in Malta or, for example, on a Minoan gold ring found at Mochlos, Crete (McGrail, 2001, pag.103; Johnstone, 1988, pag. 59) were in use. These bundle rafts, which were widely used in Early Egypt and Mesopotamia, continued in use in many parts of the Mediterranean during all the
classical period as it is clearly shown in a graffito dated to the Roman Age from She´arim, in Israel, and in a boat representation from the
rock-painti ngs group of La Laja Alta, Southern Spain, dated probably to the end of the Second Millennium BC (Almagro-Gorbea, 1988, pag.

398; Barroso, 1980, pag. 42; Dams, 1984; Luzón, 1988, pag. 455). Nowadays, bundle rafts still in use in some marginal parts of the Mediterranean, in societies with long-standing indigenous traditions as for example in the Oristano Region, in Sardinia (McGrail, 2001, pag. 105; Riccardi, 1988, pag. 275-286).

By Neolithic times it is probable that seagoing extended logboats or even simple plank vessels were technologically possible and took part in the colonization of Islands as Crete, carrying the obsidian, a clear indicator of early sea
voyages (Johnstone, 1988, pag. 55). The direct evidence for these crafts, nevertheless, has to be found much later. Although there is evidence
for seagoing travels in the Early Bronze Age (c.3800-2000 BC) we only count with
iconographic material in order to interpret the type of vessels used at that time. The study of the lead models from Naxos, the terracotta models from Palaikastro and Mochlos or the depictions on the Cycladic “Frying Pans” suggests that the vessels used in the Early Bronze Age were either logboats extended in
height and length or planked boats with cargo capacity and probably propelled by oars and with a helmsman (McGrail, 2001, pag. 106- 111; Casson, 1995, pag. 30-39). Unfortunately, at present there are no excavated boats that
can prove or give more light on the shipbuilding
techniques used on these ships.

This iconographic and documentary evidence is more evident in the eastern Mediterranean at the beginning of 2000 BC, in what it is known as the Middle Bronze Age. This increase in the evidence comes associated to a growth in the
number of seafaring activities, especially in the Levant Coast and in Crete. It is also in this time when we find the first evidence for the use of the sail in the Mediterranean, although it was probably in use much earlier in the late
fourth millennium BC in Egypt. This first evidence is a Syrian cylinder seal from Tel el Daba (1800 BC). From these times are also the first depictions of masts and rigging features in the Mediterranean. They are on a series of Minoan seals dated to the beginning of the second millennium BC. On them, the mast appears amidships but normally the sail is not
shown. The hull used to be rounded with a higher end (may be the stern?) and they could have been propelled also by human force if
we interpret the angular lines underneath the
hull as oars (McGrail, 2001, pag. 113;
Wachsmann, 1998).

But, without doubt, the representations that have raised more discussion on the Middle Bronze Age seafaring scene are those ones found at Akrotiri, in Thera. Leaving aside the controversies about its precise chronology or about the meaning of the scene itself, we have here vessels with a flat bottom whose ends
curve upwards. The stern is slightly higher than the bow. They were probably plank boats, built with plank-first techniques. Whether if they had sewn fastenings or mortise and tenon ones, is impossible to tell from these depictions.
They could be propelled by sail, oar or paddle, and were steered by a steering oar when it was necessary (McGrail, 2001, pag. 122).
Although there have been many interpretations for the purposes of these ships (Wachsmann, 1980, pag. 287-295), their peculiarities, as for example the decoration, the stern cabin or the central awning, the old fashioned method of
propulsion (paddling) and the stern projections (Casson, 1975, pag. 3-10), suggest that they were taking part in a sort of special event or ceremony instead of being intended for long- distance crossings.

Sometimes, the practical and technical shipbuilding methodology is placed in the
background when facing profound cultur al
manifestations or needs (Adams, 2001). We can appreciate in this example how the society exerts a big influence on the use of boats, and
therefore, in the way they were depicted.

Mortise and tenon plank fastenings

The end of the Middle Bronze Age is usually
taken to be the fall down of the Minoan
“thalassocracy” based on Crete. This event is

been related to the volcanic explosion of the
Island of Thera dated to 1628 BC and by
Egyptian correlation to 1450 – 1500 BC. Thanks
to the excavation of several eastern
Mediterranean wrecks dated between 1550-
1100 BC, the evidence and data that we have
from the Late Bronze Age is more extensive,
making the picture more complex at the same
time. Two of these shipwrecks, The Cape
Gelidonya and the Uluburun (1200 and 1300
BC respectively), excavated off the south-west
Turkish coast by George Bass, are the first
planked vessels remains to have survived. The
planking of both ships was fastened together
by mortise and tenon joints, with the tenons
locked in position by treenails (McGrail, 2006,
pag. 60) (Plate 1). The Romans called to this
way of joinery Coagmenta punicana, which
means “the Phoenician joint”, and it may have
been transferred to the eastern Mediterranean
World from Egypt via the Levant The earliest
known use of this type of joints in the Levant
region is in a table from a middle of the second
millennium BC tomb at Jericho. (Casson, 1995
This fastening technique, certainly, is quite
similar to the one used in Egypt in the third
and early second millennium BC. The Egyptian
mortise and tenon joints, however, were not
locked. Therefore, it was used together with
other types of fastenings in order to give more
rigidity to the hull. One example of this is the
Cheops Ship (2600 BC). Her cedar planking
was fastened together by unlocked mortise
and tenon and, mainly, by two types of lashings:
between adjacent strakes and, transversally,
from sheer to sheer (McGrail, 2001, pag. 26-
54; 2006, pag. 58) (Plate 2). In 1850 BC the
boats found at Dashur also had unlocked
mortise and tenon joints, which were deeper
than those in Cheops, and some of the objects
found with them had locked ones. As Haldane
has suggested (1996) is more than probable
that this way of shipbuilding went on in Egypt
for millennia and it was not until when the
strong influence of the phoenicians was felt in
the Eastern Mediterranean that the Egyptians
began to build their vessels with locked mortise
and tenon. One example of this is the mid-first
millennium Egyptian boat found at Matariya,
which not only has locked mortise and tenon
plank fastenings but also contains frames
(McGrail, 2001, pag. 40).
The Phoenicians could have developed
therefore this technique of using locked mortise
and tenon fastenings (influenced by the
Egyptians), which gives to the hull more
structure integrity, around the Middle Bronze
Age. The wrecks of Cape Gelidonya and
Uluburun, according to the current evidence
available, were Levantine in origin (Bass, 1997,
pag. 269; Wachsmann, 1998, pag. 206-208).
Then, with the enrichment of their city-states
in the Levant coast and the consequent
development of their maritime trade among
the Eastern Mediterranean and beyond, this
technique was widespread and generally used
by the mid-first millennium BC.

During the fourth and third centuries BC Greek
culture and technology dominated the eastern
and central Mediterranean while Rome began
to gain force in the Italian Peninsula. From this
period we have a wreck site found off the shore
of Cyprus, near Kyrenia, that represents the
general nautical features that were to persist
for half a century or so in the Mediterranean:
Shell-first construction, planking fastened
together by locked mortise and tenon
fastenings and framing mostly fastened to the
planking by metal nails. The Kyrenia ship (300
BC) is quite similar in shape to the one found
in Ma´agan-Micheal (400 BC) off the Levant
coast but her hull is solely fastened by mortise
and tenon joints, without the help of any sewing
technique. The Ma´agan-Micheal wreck
presents sewing fastenings at the bow and
the stern what has been interpreted as to gain
further strengthening of the hull and to prevent
lateral opening of the strakes on the sides
(Kahanov, 2004, pag. 45).

The continuity of sewing techniques
During the mid-first millennium BC, however,
most of the archaeological evidence that we
have from wrecks, especially from the Central
and Western Mediterranean, suggest a rather
different picture. Several ships dated from the
sixth century BC right into Roman times, which
are either fully or partially sewn, have been
excavated in the last decades giving new light
and more complexity to the study of watercrafts
in the Mediterranean World. Ancient sources
as for example Homer (Iliad 2:135; Odyssey
5:234-257)), Virgil (Aeneid 6.413-414) or Pliny
(NH 24-65), suggest that Greek fleets had sewn
planking and that the use of sewn techniques
remained in Classical times (Casson, 1995,
pag. 43-68). The wrecks dated to this period
have been found off the Easter n Mediterranean
shores, as the mentioned Ma´agan-Michael
wreck; in Italy, as the ships of Giglio, Gela or
in the Venice Lagoon; France, as for example
the shipwreck Bon-Porté or Place Jules-Verne,
in Marseilles (Plate 3); and in Spain, as the
greek wreck of Cala Sant Vicenç, off the
northern coast of the Island of Mallorca (Nieto,
2002), or the seventh century BC Carthaginian
wreck of Playa de La Isla (Negueruela,.1995),
although this latter only has lashed framing
whereas her planking is fastened together by
mortise and tenon joints.

Sewing techniques were still
in use during Roman times
until the Medieval Period as
we can see in the wrecks of
Cavaliere (100 BC), Jeanne-
Garde B (Second century BC)
or in the Cap Bear C
shipwreck (First century BC).
In these times, when the
mortise and tenon technique
was the main way of plank
joinery and the influence of
frames within the hull
construction was growing,
sewing was used mostly for
repairs and in areas of the
vessel where leaks were most
likely to occur (underwater hull
and ends) (McGrail, 2001, pag.
138). Nevertheless, several
entire sewn-plank boats have
been excavated from coastal
sites in the Adriatic, in Croatia,
and in the delta of the River
Po despite the advances in
nautical technology (Plate 4).
Probably, these late sewn-
vessels are the answer of
indigenous societies to their
environment and to the
importance of their
economical position within the
Mediterranean community.
Normally they are found in
rivers, lakes, lagoons or deltas,
being very improbable their
use in long-distance voyages

At first, mortise and tenon
joints were used together with
sewn fastenings. With the
improvement of woodworking
in the Eastern Mediterranean
Sea, the technique of locked
mortise and tenon joints was
used as the only plank
fastening in the hull. Also, the
subsequent change to metal-
fastened frames instead of being lashed needed better skills
in the way the timber was elaborate. The development of these
techniques increased the cohesiveness of the planking shell,
both in strength and watertightness (McGrail, 2001, pag. 148).
These changes in the hull structure and in the shipbuilding
techniques from mid-second century until the Roman times
are directly related to the social and cultural transformations
that were going on in the Mediterranean World. The growth of
the cities-states in the Levant Coast and in The Aegean region
and the increase in the maritime trade competence led to the
necessity of more rigid vessels, with major capacity and better
manoeuvrability. This also led to a need of protection of the
trading goods and of the wealth of the cities-states. As McGrail
has pointed out, some of these changes would have been
stimulated by warship requirements. A ship built shell-first with
a fastening system of locked mortise and tenon would have
been “a better fighting machine than one with sewn-planking
and lashed framing” (2001, pag. 148).

Transition from Shell to Skeleton Construction

The Roman Age, from mid-second century BC
to the fourth century AD, was characterized in
nautical technology by a general continuity in
building techniques from the Hellenistic period
(Muckelroy, 1978, pag. 65-75; McGrail, 2001,
pag. 154; León & Domingo, 1992, pag. 199-
218). To this period belongs most of the
archaeological evidence that we have from
Mediterranean shipwrecks. And, certainly, the
increasing domination of Rome over the
Mediterranean World, defeating Greece and
Carthage at the end of the first millennium BC,
influenced in the quantity and quality of the
ships the were built at this time.
During this period, apart from small boats
which followed the same shipbuilding
techniques observed in the Kyrenia Wreck, the
increasing demand for cargo space can be
seen in the bigger tonnage of the merchant
ships. Examples of this are the first century
BC shipwrecks of La Madrague de Giens (400
tonnes) or Albenga (500-600 tonnes) (Parker,
1992). This resulted in the use of thicker
planking or in the construction of a hull with
inner and outer planking leaving some wool or
other fabric saturated in wax in between. This
would has given more strength to the hull
structure and integrity (Steffy, 1994, pag. 62-
65; León & Domingo, 1992, pag. 199-218),
being thus more capable or carrying bigger
and heavier cargoes. At the same time, planking
strength was increased, either in double-
planking ships or in single-planking ones, with
the use of more fastenings per unit length, as
we see in wrecks like La Madrague de Giens
or Antikythera I, in Greece (First century BC)
(McGrail, 2001, pag. 156). With these greater
hulls we also observe an increase in size of
the frames an in its use. They are internal and
discontinuous and begin to be fastened to the
keel giving more structural strength to the
vessel.

While the construction technique of shell-first
was still generally used in the Mediterranean
in shipbuilding, we begin to have some
evidence from the third and fourth century AD
of the new importance given to the frames in
determining the ship’s lines (Muckelroy, 1978,
pag. 64). At the end of this period there were
several changes in the social and economic
prevailing systems along the roman
Mediterranean that were reflected in the
technology used in shipbuilding (León &
Domingo, 1992, pag. 199-218). Certainly, there
was a tendency during the Roman Empire to
look for less costly and faster methods of
construction, giving less importance to the
durability of the vessel herself (Muckelroy,
1978, pag. 65; Casson, 1995, pag. 141-148;
McGrail, 2001, pag. 158). With the decline in
slavery at the en of the Roman Empire, the
expensiveness of shipbuilding process
increased making the ship-owners prefer
smaller and cheaper vessels. Wrecks of big
merchant ships are uncommon after the second
century AD. Furthermore, other social and
natural factors that could have influenced this
change in ship technology could have been
for example: new types of goods that were
traded, improvements in tools and techniques
used for construction, deforestation or the
introduction of fore-and-aft sail, what would
have reduced also considerably the use of
human force in the propulsion of the ships
(McGrail, 2001, pag. 158).

All these social and economic changes can
be implied in the study of a wreck found off
Turkish shores, The Yassi Ada 2, dated to the
fourth century AD, and of other ones from the
fifth century AD such as Fiumicino I or Dramont
5 and 6 (Parker, 1992). These ships were small
cargo vessels, built shell-first with planking
fastened by mortise and tenon joints and
frames alternately floors and half-frames. The
major importance given to the frames can be
seen in the bigger distance that can be
appreciated between the joints and their smaller
size. Finally, we find mortises and tenon joints
not locked whose mere purpose was to help
the plank alignment, as it was when they first
appeared in Egypt.

The frame-first construction technique was
known by the Greeks in the fifth century BC,
as we can infer from Herodotus (1.194) but
only in relation to the building of skin boats
(Basch, 1972, pag. 47). It is, however, in the
seventh century AD when we find the first
archaeological evidence for ships built frame-
first. Wrecks as St. Gervais 2, Tantura I or
Pantano Longarini had their planking treenailed
and nailed to a pre-erected framing instead of
being fastened together (McGrail, 2001, pag.
161). Other wrecks, as Yassi Ada I (c. AD 625),
were plank-first built in their lower hull, while
frame-first in the upper part where there were
simpler shapes. By 1025 AD, the technique of
fastening planks by locked mortise and tenon
joints was abandoned almost completely. The
best evidence that we count with from this
period is the Serçe Limano wreck, entirely built
frame-first (Steffy, 1994, pag. 85-91) (Plate 6).
The consequences of frame-first construction
can be followed during the next centuries, with
the disintegration of the Roman Empire and
the development of the Medieval Europe. The
technological changes that have happened
during the first centuries AD were influenced
by the new social and economic systems that
were being shaped at that moment. Now, the
new shipbuilding method of frame-first
construction, consequence of the continuous
social interaction with the technology, was
going to play an important role in the history
of the incoming centuries. Frame-first
construction made possible to build bigger
ships in a quicker way. The resulting vessels
had more seaworthy hulls appropriate for the
ocean crossings that later on were going to
take place (McGrail, 2001, pag. 160; Muckelroy,
1978, pag. 65; León & Domingo, 1992, pag.
199-218).

Bibliography

ADAMS, J. (2001): 鉄hips and boats as

archaeological source material・, World

Archaeology. 32(3).

NIETO, Xavier; et al. (2002): 摘l pecio de Cala

Sant Vicen・, Revista de arqueolog僘 258

PARKER, A.J. (1992): Ancient Shipwrecks of the

Mediterranean and the Roman Provinces, BAR.

International Series 580, Oxford.

REY DA SILVA, Arturo (2006): Boats of the Iberian

Peninsula in Prehistor y. The Iconographic

evidence, Unpublished MA Dissertation,

WESTERDAHL, C. (1994): 溺aritime cultures and

ship types: brief comments on the significance

of maritime archaeology・, International Journal

of Nautical Archaeology. 23(4).

McGRAIL, S. (2006): Ancient Boats and Ships.

Original work By :
Arturo rAY dA sILWA.
http://www.crystalinks.com/indiaships.html
http://www1.chinaculture.org/created/2005-06/21/content_69882_3.htm
http://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_agraw_ships_frameset.htm
(This is just a collection and not a orignal work by this blogger and not for any commertial use and mare a collection of articles at one place)

Nandkishore s Gitte.

ALTERNATIVE PROPULSION POWERING FOR MERCHANT SHIPS

2009-05-26T22:19:00.032+05:30

The diesel powerplant forms the basis of comparison against which all of the subsequent alternative concepts are evaluated.

Ship powering demands two characteristics: Reliability and Economy. Due to excellent economy the diesel engine remains predominant. The diesel driveline chosen for most large cargo ships consists of a low-speed two-stroke diesel turning a direct-connected single propeller. Such a propulsion plant consists of a single large engine turning the propeller at shaft RPM with no intervening reduction gear.
A leading manufacturer of such engines are MAN B+W, SULZER (Wartisila).

Diesel Engines

MAN/B+W have provided an excellent summary of the development of container
ship diesel propulsion:

“A substantial number of recent large cargo ship contracts have called for
main engine outputs up to a the highest ratings available, and for a period, most
large cargo ships were thus specified with main engine MCR outputs of some
65,000 bhp

However the launching of ratings up to about 75,000 bhp per unit changed the
picture. Now units with such outputs exist and in anticipation of a market for
above 8000 TEU container ships, engines with even higher outputs have been
introduced.

The change in ship size does not in itself explain the substantial increase in the
average engine power seen in recent years. Hence it can be assumed that the
design speed has increased. Increase in the average engine size is an indication of
a changed demand pattern toward higher powered ship types.

The propulsion power requirement is considerably higher for a container ship
sailing with high-value commodities than for bulk carriers and large tankers
transporting raw materials, for which the sailing time is of less economical
consequence. Hence, the propulsion power requirement for a Post Panamax
container ship is 2-3 times the power requirement for a VLCC.

The increasing containerization and competition in this market, together with
demands for the lowest possible freight cost per TEU, will imply a continued race
for transporting as many TEUs as possible on the long-haul routes. This means
that an increase in the average power requirement for container ships is to be
expected.”

Other manufacturers have reported their intent to introduce engines larger than the
K98. Examples include IHI’s representation of their intent to introduce a 140,000
hp engine.
RINA reported in June of 2001 that “the two leading designers of low-speed
diesel machinery, Wartsila (Sulzer) and MAN B+W have both launched
extended-cylinder inline versions of their most powerful models. This is being
done to provide suitable plants for future generations of container liners without
branching into twin-engine/twin-screw variants.”
Specifically, “Sulzer can now offer a 14-cylinder RTA96C engine capable of
developing 80,080kW, while MAN B+W has just announced 13- and 14-cylinder
versions of its K98MC and K98MC-C models. These will provide 74,360kW and
80,080kW (K98MC) and 74,230kW and 79,940kW (K98MC-C). (The MC-C
designation indicates a shorter stroke and slightly faster running speed.) Even
more remarkable, this latter designer says both types could be built with up to 18
cylinders and outputs of nearly 103,000kW, if necessary!”
These future engines are not yet in existence, and it appears that when they do
emerge, they will be very similar to the existing K98.

ALTERNATIVE POWERING OPTIONS

Gas Turbine Engines

During the period of the 1960s the world enjoyed an affair of preference for new
and “space age” devices. During this period aeroderivative gas turbine engines
saw service in some limited merchant shipping activities. It was during this time,
for example, that the Golden Gate Ferry district first procured gas turbine-driven
high speed ferries to serve San Francisco. However, the Oil Embargo of 1973/74
and the skyrocketing fuel prices associated therewith almost eliminated gas
turbines as prime movers for merchant ships because of their inferior fuel
economy compared to medium and low-speed diesel engines. Today however
there has been a resurgence of interest in gas turbine propulsion.

Gas turbines are small and compact for their power level – especially when
compared to low-speed diesels. They have recently enjoyed a revival as a prime
mover for the growing number of fast ferries that are subject to severe space and
weight restrictions and which transport a “cargo” that appreciates reduced
traveling time. Gas turbines have also seen success in cruise ships, because their
very high operating RPMs result in a nearly vibration-free machinery plant and
thus a potentially quieter, smoother ride.

iy is not evident, however, that these virtues of the gas turbine are sufficient to
qualify it for the propulsion of the greater part of the merchant fleet. Its
disadvantage in terms of its preference for high quality fuel and its relatively low
fuel efficiency, in particular at part load, surely detract from its acceptability.
This is recognized clearly by the turbine manufacturers, and thus a significant part
of their efforts is devoted to increasing the fuel efficiency of their gas turbines.

The U.S. Department of Energy has also recognized this and has sponsored
several cost-shared Advanced Turbine Development programs to boost the
efficiencies of U.S gas turbine engines. Additionally while the gas turbines have
a much lower power-to-weight ratio, they do require a greater amount of interior
space for intakes and exhaust which also becomes a design tradeoff issue.

The latest generation of marine gas turbine – including engines which are still
slightly “over the horizon” – includes intercooled, recuperated or regenerative gas
turbines. These machines capture heat from the turbine exhaust and recover the
energy in order to increase the overall thermal efficiency of the machine. As a
result the fuel consumption per unit power generated is reduced and part load
efficiencies are increased as well.

The recuperators increase the size and weight of the machine and thus somewhat
erode the machine’s advantage in these areas. Turbine manufacturers also claim
their engines to be of greater reliability than a diesel. The absence of
reciprocating parts brings to mind the Mazda car commercials of the 1970s,
wherein we were enjoined to consider that “whirr” was better than “bounce
bounce bounce.” In similar fashion turbine manufacturers state that a modern gas
turbine will run for many thousands of hours with only periodic inspections.
Indeed, in fast ferry applications and land-based stationary power applications the
machines are run completely unattended for hours at a time.
Recent RINA reports suggest that the experience “from the first gas turbinepowered
cruise ships now in service seem to confirm a number of benefits offered
by this form of main propulsion over conventional diesel-mechanical and dieselelectric
systems. The vessels in question are Celebrity Cruises' Millennium and
Infinity, both built by Chantiers de l'Atlantique, and Royal Caribbean
International's Radiance of the Seas, very recently completed by Meyer Werft.
Each of these three ships is powered by two GE LM2500+ gas turbines.
“In the early stages of winning these orders, GE believed (as reported in a paper
presented at the Seatrade Miami conference) that both the owner and the shipyard
would be concentrating most heavily on the following power plant issues when
considering new ship designs:
• space utilisation aboard ship
• environmental friendliness
• passenger comfort
• maintenance costs
• reliability.
“General Electric's original estimates claimed that as many as 50 additional
passenger cabins could be realized as a result of installing a COGES plant
(combined gas turbine and steam turbine with integrated electric drive) in the
original engineroom space designed for a diesel plant. In both Millennium and
Radiance of the Seas, the designers did, in fact, find this much space and the
cabins were added. Additionally, Meyer Werft is refining the design of the
follow-on ships, Brilliance of the Seas and sisters, to move the engineroom aft,
which will result in considerably more public space along with an increase in
passenger cabins.
“Another approach that has come about as a result of the compact and lightweight
design of the GE gas turbine package is placing the gas turbine generator in the
funnel. This is being done on two classes of P&O Princess Cruises vessels, also
onboard Cunard's new Queen Mary 2. On the latter ship, the extremely high
power requirement dictated the use of gas turbines in addition to four Wartsila
diesel engines. Once again, because of the light weight and compactness of the
gas turbine package, the designers were able to place two gas turbo-alternators in
the funnel.”

In addition, significant environmental attractions exist for gas turbines.
According to RINA “Royal Caribbean's decision to utilize gas turbines in its next
generation of cruise liners was heavily driven by its desire to lead the industry in
the construction of environmentally friendly ships. In 1998, GE claimed that its
LM2500+ gas turbine would reduce emissions by 98% from that of current diesel
technology. During the hand-over of Millennium to Celebrity (today a Royal
Caribbean associate), actual exhaust stack emission measurements were taken.
Not only was there no visible smoke, but the NOx emissions were found to be
only 5g/kWh. This is less than half the minimum level targeted by IMO.
“Of course, diesel engine manufacturers have not been standing idly by during the
past three years. MAN B&W has its 'invisible smoke' technology which
incorporates fuel/water emulsification, auxiliary blower, and special turbocharger.
Meanwhile, Wartsila NSD is developing its 'smokeless diesel' which incorporates
a new ultra high-pressure common rail fuel system. In addition, the Finns use
direct water injection to reduce NOx emissions. ‘Both these technologies are not
new and add a considerable amount of complexity to the installation and
operation of these engines,' claims David Whisenhunt, general manager of
commercial marine systems at S&S Energy Products (part of the GE Group). 'On
Millenium, we have proven that our gas turbines operate without visible smoke
and actually meet the 5g/kWh target that we quoted in 1998. No new
development was necessary to accomplish this,'”

Regarding reliability and maintenance, it is reported “Although there have, as yet,
been no major gas turbine-related repair, events on Millenium, the jury is really
still out. It will probably take another year for crews to wholeheartedly believe
what GE has been saying all along about how simple gas turbines are to maintain
onboard.

“As opposed to changing or repairing major components on a set schedule, which
is normally the case with diesel engines, repairs to the LM2500+ sets are carried
out based on condition observed during regular borescope inspections. These are
normally done approximately once every 2500 hours.
“The last borescope inspection on Millenium was carried out in January this year
[2001]. The service engineer stated that internal components still 'looked like
new' after 5000 hours of operation. At that rate, it is the opinion of GE experts
that the predicted 15,000 hour hot-section repair interval will be easily passed.
“Royal Caribbean elected to enter into a long- term maintenance agreement with
GE for its gas turbines. This contract covers all scheduled maintenance activities,
including hot section repairs. GE has been told by the owner that the cost of the
contract was comparable to its diesel engine maintenance at the time on a
cost/MW basis. Today, as diesel engines become somewhat more complex
because of emission requirements, their maintenance cost seems likely to
increase. This could make gas turbines even more attractive in the future.”

Regarding reliability, the RINA article goes on to say: “Another operational
aspect that has been rarely debated by opponents of gas turbine technology is
reliability. With more than 25 years of operating history in the US Navy, the
LM2500 has a proven track record. Because of this, the LM2500 and the
LM2500+ are recognized as the standard for modern gas turbine design
technology when it comes to reliability.
“The turbines aboard Millenium should prove no exception. It is now more than a
year ago since they were first started up in the shipyard, and both units are
reported to have operated flawlessly, requiring no repairs to date. The entire
COGES system is claimed to have operated continuously without any event
causing a delay in the ship's schedule.”
The activity of the cruise ship industry in the adoption of gas turbines may have
important applicability for the container industry as well. Both industries are
conservative and highly competitive. Also, both industries face pressure to
reduce the environmental impact of their service. The RINA article notes
“Because of an emphasis on environment friendly ships, both owners and yards
have changed their attitude towards gas turbine power since the concept was first
considered in 1995 and Royal Caribbean took the lead with the first orders in
1998. Many major cruise shipping companies have now placed orders for ship
with GE LM2500 and LM2500+ gas turbine onboard, Owners appear to have
recognized that gas turbines fulfill the need for cleaner propulsion plant emissions
without adding significantly more complexity. Yards such as Chantiers de
I'Atlantique, Meyer Werft, and Fincantieri are reported to be convinced that gas
turbines are actually easier and less costly to install.”
“S&S Energy Products' David Whisenhunt believes that after a few more years'
experience in operating gas turbines, crews will plead for a total change-over to
this machinery. 'They will find their lives much simpler in the face of
increasingly stringent environmental regulations for waste and sludge, not to
mention the chore of keeping the newer, more complex diesel engines tuned to
limit visible smoke and emissions,' he says.

Marine gas turbines generally are developed either from land-based power units
or from aircraft engines. Since land-based units, such as the Westinghouse 501,
are designed from the beginning to operate on land, weight usually isn't an
important design criterion so most (but not all) units tend to be very large and
very heavy. Aero-derivative turbines, as the name implies, are developed from
engines designed for aircraft use. These units are smaller and lighter than the
land-based units, but their durability is not as good. Since weight and volume
traditionally are important considerations when selecting a ship powerplant, and
since marine engines operate for much fewer hours and at lower power levels than
do land-based units, most large marine gas turbine engines are of the aeroderivative
type. However it is important to note the similarity of evolution of the
land-based turbine and the marine low-speed diesel. In both of these machines

the evidence points to an emphasis upon reliability and efficiency, with little
attention given to weight or size.
Marine gas turbines have power turbines that are either mechanically coupled or
aerodynamically coupled to the gas generator section. Each configuration has its
advantages and disadvantages. Mechanically-coupled engines, such as the
General Electric LM6000, typically are more efficient than the aerodynamicallycoupled
engines. One disadvantage, however, is that minimum power turbine
rotational speed is fixed at a relatively high level because the same shaft also
drives the low-pressure compressor stages, which cannot turn too slowly or the
engine will stall. The aerodynamically-coupled engines are the opposite: the
efficiencies are slightly lower but the power turbine can operate at very low
speeds since the power turbine is not directly coupled to the compressor. Another
advantage of mechanical coupling is that some engines that have it allow power
takeoff from the compressor end as well as from the exhaust end. Most marine
gas turbines also are simple cycle, having only compression, combustion, and
expansion processes typical of a Brayton open cycle. The Northrop Grumman
WR-21 engine now in development, however, is not simple cycle. It has an
intercooler and recuperator (also called a regenerator) so it often is referred to as
the ICR engine. The ICR cycle provides good fuel efficiency even at low power
levels, but it does so at the expense of added complexity, size, and weight.
Reliability is unknown at this time, however, since its development has been
primarily for military naval applications it is assumed to be high.
Current Market Scenario
Turbine options available currently or in the near future are listed below.
Note that there are other turbine manufacturers than those listed, but these
are arguably the leading ones in marine propulsion:
• GE LM2500+
• GE LM6000
• GE 90
• GE Frame 6B
• GE Frame 7
• Rolls-Royce V2500
• Rolls-Royce Trent
• Westinghouse 501
The characteristics of these engines are given in Table 1. They are
described below:
General Electric LM2500+ - An upgrade of the LM2500 aero-derivative
engine, the LM2500+ is a simple cycle gas turbine engine with an
introductory ISO continuous rating of 27,050 kW and a U.S. Navy rating
of 26,100 kW. Initially derived from the TF-39 engine used on DC-10
wide-bodied jets, the two-shaft design has an output speed of 3600 rpm to
permit direct coupling to a 60 Hz generator. This engine has been used
several times for cruise liner electric propulsion. The two-shaft design
consists of a gas generator and power turbine. The gas generator consists
of a variable geometry compressor, an annular combustor, high pressure
turbine, an accessory drive gear box, controls and accessories. The 16-
stage compressor is of the high-pressure-ratio, axial flow design. The
LM2500+ also utilizes a “zero stage” on the compressor with a resulting
increase in airflow, which allows for the upgraded power rating from the
base LM2500. The 6-stage low pressure power turbine is aerodynamically
coupled to the gas generator and driven by the gas generator exhaust.
General Electric LM6000 - This engine is derived from the GE CF6-80C2
aircraft engine used in the Boeing 747 and 767, the McDonnell Douglas
MD-11, and the Airbus A300. Being designed for simple-cycle,
combined-cycle and cogeneration installations the LM6000 has an output
speed of 3600 rpm and can be directly coupled to an electric generator for
60 Hz applications. The LM6000 has an ISO rating of 43,860 kW. The
concentric two-shaft arrangement has the low pressure compressor and
low pressure turbine on one shaft, forming the low pressure rotor, and the
high pressure compressor and high pressure turbine on the other shaft,
forming the high pressure rotor. Utilizing a 5-stage low pressure section
and a 14 stage high pressure section results in a compression ratio for each
section of 2.4:1 and 12:1, respectively. The combustion system is of the
annular type and can be operated with natural gas, liquid fuel, or dual fuel.
The combustion gases expand through a 2-stage, air-cooled, high pressure
turbine and a 5-stage low pressure turbine. Over 160 LM6000 units are
currently in shore-side operation for simple-cycle, combined-cycle or
cogeneration projects worldwide.
General Electric LM9000 - The LM9000 is a nomenclature assigned to a
nominal 125 MW aero-derivative engine which could be developed from
either the CF6-880C2 or from a GE90 core (the engine is currently in
service in the Boeing 777 aircraft.) Although some preliminary studies
have been completed by the manufacturer concerning the possibilities of
such development, no decision has yet been made to proceed with further
development. According to the manufacturer, any decision to proceed
with the development would depend upon assessment of the market for an
aero-derivative gas turbine in this power class.
General Electric Frame 6B – The GE Frame 6B is currently used in 60 Hz
industrial power cogeneration applications worldwide. With a
manufacturer’s nominal rating of 38 MW, the Frame 6B has an estimated
navy continuous rating of 34,525 kW for specified marine applications.
This simple-cycle engine has a 17-stage axial-flow compressor with
modulated inlet guide vanes resulting in a compression ratio of 11.8:1. It
is equipped with a reverse flow, multi-chamber (can annular), single
nozzle combustion chamber with its exhaust expanding into a 3-stage
power turbine.
General Electric Frame 7 – This engine, like the Frame 6B, is also
designed specifically for 60 Hz power generation. Designed to be directly
coupled to a generator, the Frame 7 has a manufacturers rating of 85.4
MW. For proposed naval applications, however, the Frame 7 has been derated
at approximately 77.9 MW. This simple-cycle engine has a 17-stage
axial-flow compressor with modulated inlet guide vanes resulting in a
compression ratio of 12.2:1. It is equipped with a reverse flow, multichamber
(can annular), single nozzle combustion chamber with its exhaust
expanding into a 3-stage power turbine. This gas turbine is available
primarily for electric utility applications, this fuel-flexible power generator
is used in cogeneration and combined-cycle power plants.
Rolls-Royce V2500 - This family of aircraft engines is used exclusively in
the Airbus A319, A320 and A321. Currently, the V2500 is only available
in the aero form and there are no immediate plans by the manufacturer to
convert this engine for use in marine or industrial applications.
Rolls Royce Marine Trent - The Marine Trent is based on the on the Rolls-
Royce Industrial Trent power generation gas turbine which, in turn, is a
derivative of the Trent 700 and 800 aero engine. The result is a mature
powerplant having a marine rating of approximately 47.5 MW. The threeshaft
design Marine Trent engine replaces the industrial dual gas/liquid
fueled combustion system with a simplified liquid-only system. The
engine is equipped with a 2-stage, axial configuration low pressure
compressor with variable inlet guide vanes, an 8-stage intermediate
pressure compressor and a 6-stage high pressure compressor. It has an
annular combustion system. The low pressure turbine consists of 5-stages
of high aspect ratio rotor and stator blades. The low pressure turbine is
followed by a single stage intermediate pressure axial turbine and a high
pressure turbine. In addition, due to the power turbine being able to run
down a typical cube law power/speed curve to idle, the large low pressure
compressor handling bleed and ducting needed in synchronous power
generation applications is not required and has been removed.
Siemens/Westinghouse 501 – The 501 engine has been the key element of
a self-contained electrical power generating system termed ECONOPAC,
which is nominally rated at 160 MW. For naval applications the 501
engine has a reduced rating of 145.4 MW using a conventional combustor
with distillate fuel. Commercial marine rating would likely be similar.
The engine is designed for simple-cycle and heat-recovery applications.
The single-shaft engine has a 16-stage axial flow compressor yielding a
compression ratio of 14:1. The combustion system is composed of 16
single-nozzle combustors in can-annular arrangement. The power turbine
is a 4-stage reaction turbine. This engine primarily has been installed in

industrial power generation applications, and is not currently used in any
marine applications due to its large physical size and weight. Note,
however, that it is not far from the power being discussed in future
generation 10,000+ TEU ships.

presents physical and fuel consumption data on the listed engines.
As will be seen, the fuel consumption for the turbines ranges from 205 to
277 g/kW-hr. This compares to the diesel’s 171 g/kW-hr as a 20% to
60% penalty in fuel consumption. Further, since these engines prefer a
lighter grade of fuel, there is an additional cost increase per pound of fuel
that may be approximately 50%. The net result of this is that the turbines
may cost as much as twice as much in fuel costs, as compared to the
diesels. This of course adds to the total life cycle cost of the gas turbine
propulsion plant alternative as well as a modification of the world-wide
bunkers infrastructure.
Most of the listed turbines turn at about 3600 rpm. Thus a double-stage reduction gear
is required to reduce the rpm to the 100-200 at the ship’s propeller.
Gears of this power and ratio will be large and heavy, often as heavy as
the turbine engine itself. Indeed, a reduction gear weight of about 1 tonne
per MW is likely. Thus the weight of the turbine engine must be increased
from, say, 20% to 100% to account for the weight of required reduction
gears. (A greater weight penalty with the lighter aeroderivative engines.)
The result of this is a range of engine-plus-gear weights as follows. As
may be seen, despite large gear weights these engines are still substantially
lighter than the thousand-tonne-plus diesels. This weight reduction might
in some services be converted into extra revenue capacity. However, due
to the noted fuel consumption penalty, this weight reduction will be
completely eliminated by an increase in the required fuel capacity. The
result is that there is no net reduction in machinery weight, no net increase
in ship revenue, and a substantial increase in recurring fuel costs.

Electric Drive
Electric drive is an alternative prime mover/power generator. This methodology consists of using a steam, diesel, or gas turbine prime mover, or an alternative power generator (fuel
cells or nuclear reactor) to drive a large electric power producer (alternator). The
electricity is then sent via wiring to a propulsion motor that turns the propeller.

This system would more properly be called an electric transmission, as the prime
drive power is still diesel or turbine produced. As may be imagined, the system
introduces some losses, as mechanical energy is converted into electricity and
then back into mechanical energy. Further, the large alternators and motors
required may significantly drive up the weight of the system as compared with a
mechanical transmission, especially when compared to the directly coupled lowspeed
diesel engine configurations.

The attraction of electric drive lies primarily in the ability to distribute power
demand over multiple prime movers. Thus several engines may be working
together to drive one propeller. This in turn offers the possibility of adjusting
load factors so that the engines operate at their most fuel-efficient points
throughout a relatively wide range of ship speeds. Cruise ships are increasingly
turning to electric drive, with the Queen Elizabeth II being a notable example.
Electric drive is also of interest for ships with large hotel electric loads, such as
cruise ships and warships, because it offers the possibility of having one large
machinery “bank”, and tapping power off for propulsion or hotel loads equally.
As has been mentioned, electric drive begs the question of how the electricity is
produced – whether by diesel, turbine, or other means. In this section of this
report we will address only the propulsion motor & generator portion of electric
drive. Sections below will address a variety of propulsion power generation
options. In this way, the present discussion of electric transmission forms a
building block for subsequent discussion of Fuel Cells and Nuclear Power.

Current market scenario
Among the largest electric drive motors currently deployed are those on
the passenger liner Queen Elizabeth II. These motors have the
characteristics given below:
• Length 4.4m
• Width 8.74m
• Height 8.4m
• Weight 285t
• Power 44 MW
• RPM 144
• Power 10kVolt 3 Phase 60 Hz
Additionally, published US Navy reports indicate that the next generation
of naval surface combatant – designated DD 21 – will be electrically
driven. Based on current destroyer-sized warships we may thus expect the
DD-21 to be fitted with two shafts each having 50-70,000 hp electric drive
motors.
Limited data is available on a 35MW GEC Alstom motor, having the
following characteristics:
• Length 11.2m
• Width 4.25m
• Height 3.75m
• Weight 230t
• Power 35 MW
A developmental motor is the superconducting homopolar motor currently
being developed by General Atomics (GA). The following description is
taken from a General Atomics data sheet on this project: “General
Atomics is performing an assessment of superconducting homopolar
motors for ship propulsion as part of the U.S. Navy's quiet electric drive
effort. Homopolar motors are simple in design and offer the potential for
a large weight reduction when compared to conventional motors.
Because there are no multipole components in the motor it is expected to
be acoustically quiet enough to permit hard mounting directly to the ship's
hull, thus greatly simplifying integration.
In order for the homopolar motor to fully exploit the advantages of
reduced size and weight, the field coils must be superconducting. The
coils will be conduction cooled using compact reliable devices called
cryocoolers, which do not require the use of bulk liquid cryogens. GA has
developed and demonstrated the reliability of conduction-cooled
superconducting systems for the Navy under high shock and vibration
environments that are suitable for full-scale homopolar motors. Ongoing
research and development efforts by the Navy are now focusing on
improving the performance and reliability of the motor's current collectors
or "brushes." Dry current collectors presently under development show
promise for reduced wear rates that may result in no maintenance between
ship overhaul cycles.

The conceptual design of the 40,000 HP, 150 RPM motor was developed
by the Naval Surface Warfare Center, Annapolis, MD, and is significantly
smaller in diameter than any other kind of electric drive propulsion motor
of equivalent speed and power, and is expected to have between 1.5% and
2% higher overall efficiency.”
The physical characteristics of these motors may be approximately as
follows:
• Length 4.1m
• Width 4.3m
• Height 4.3m
• Weight 113t
• Power 31 MW
• RPM 100

The efficiency of an electric drive system depends upon a number of
factors. Not least of these is the type of rectifier / inverter used, and how
hard one has “pushed” the rating. For example, adding forced air cooling
to some of the components will increase their rating as much as a third,
but at lower efficiency.
For a general-purpose efficiency estimate it is not unreasonable to expect
electric drive to have a net system efficiency of 90%. This is the ratio
between installed engine power and net delivered propeller power.
Motor------ Technology----- Weight----- Power----- kg/kW
QE-2 -----Conventional AC----- 285 t----- 44 MW -----6.47
GEC /Alstom -----Conventional AC----- 230 t -----35 MW -----6.57
General Atomics----- Superconducting -----113 t------ 31 MW -----3.65

it appears reasonable to state
that current technology motors are available at about 6.5 kW/tonne, and
that future technology motors may become available at about 4kW/t. (The
author has rounded the figure of 3.65 to 4 in order to reflect the
developmental status of the motors. It would be unrealistic to use a
prototype figure to three significant digits to represent a production unit
that may be ten years away.)
Nuclear – Electric
Propulsion

Nuclear power has not been considered since the NS Savannah in the 1950s. The
Savannah experience is complex and cannot be adequately summarized here. In
brief it was that the manning requirements, due to the high degree of training
required, and fearful port regulations impaired further development of nuclear
merchant ships.
A new type of nuclear power plant has been recently proposed, designated the
gas turbine modular helium reactor (GT-MHR). In this type of reactor the heat of
reaction causes helium gas to expand. The helium is “blown” across a turbine
coupled to an electric alternator. Because of the balance of the reaction this type
of reactor is fail-safe: If left uncontrolled it will “wind down” to an idle mode.
The GT-MHR has suggested to several observers an application for shipboard
use. Indeed, a parallel CCDOTT project is studying the application of the GT
MHR to the FastShip Atlantic vessel.
Conceptually the GT-MHR is similar to a gas turbine, except for the existence of
a nuclear reactor instead of fuel burners, and the choice of a closed helium cycle,
resulting in a decrease in the compression ratio. Helium is heated by the nuclear
reaction and expands across the blades of the turbine. The helium is recondensed
and redelivered to the hot side of the reactor. The turning turbine produces
torque, and in some cases is directly coupled to a generator (within the
containment shell) for direct delivery of electrical power.
To further improve the thermal efficiency from that of a simple cycle, a heat
recuperator recovers residual energy from the turbines, reducing the reactor size,
while a precooler and an intercooler reduce the compression power demand. With
23
such characteristics, a nuclear power plant could achieve a 47.6% thermal
efficiency.
Helium is the preferred working fluid for several reasons. This monatomic and
low-molecular-weight gas peaks in efficiency at a relatively low compression
ratio, imposing small mechanical loading on the turbine blades. It has a high
specific heat capacity, high gas constant and a relatively high thermal
conductivity, properties which make compact components possible. On the other
hand, its low density and high gas constant allow high flow rates without Mach
restrictions as in conventional turbines. Its inertness reduces radioactivity within
the turbomachinery. The main limitation of helium is cost.
The conceptual container ship GT-MHR powerplant could be as depicted in
Figure 2. The plant depicted shows a configured envisaged for two-shaft
operation, with one reactor vessel (RV), and two power conversion vessels
(PCV). Both the RV and the PCV are located within a radiological containment
perimeter. The PCV would produce electric power, which would then be fed to
the ship’s propulsion motors. Container ship versions of this system would
probably utilize a single PCV, for a single shaft ship.The main attribute of a GTMHR,
provided that it has a low power or a low power density, is its capacity to
tolerate a full loss of coolant without core meltdown
and the stability of the coolant. Safety resides in a microencapsulated
fuel that can retain fission products during such an accident, its capacity to
passively shut down the reactor if temperature increases (Doppler effect), and a
safety-related favorable core geometry. In the General Atomics GT-MHR, each
fuel element is a hexagonal-prismatic graphite matrix 0.8 m high and 0.3 m
between faces, with 3000 fuel compacts in 94 channels, plus 108 cooling
channels. The elements are arranged in an annular core with internal and external
reflectors. Each fuel compact is 5 cm high and 1.2 cm in diameter, and contains
hundreds of thousands of tiny refractory particles (615 μm), with uranium
encapsulated in several layers of porous carbon, silicon carbide and pyrolytic
carbon (TRISO). This fuel design has been proven at high temperatures for about
three decades, and tested to almost its theoretical burnup.
To remove fission heat, helium is injected to the RV at 7.1 MPa, from the PCV.
It ascends through the RV periphery, descends cooling the reactor core, and
returns to the PCV, expanding through the compression and power turbines. The
ICR cycle is used for a better thermal efficiency, and two compressors make up
for expansion and friction pressure drop. Power level control is provided by gas
pressure adjustment at nominal efficiency, and by a power turbine by-pass.
Figure 6 schematizes the gas flow for one of the GT-MHR modules as applied to
FastShip.
Current market scenario

GT-MHRs, and nuclear reactors in general, experience significant
economies of scale. Thus most development attention is focused on the
deployment of large land-based power generation capabilities. This is in
contrast to most alternative propulsion concepts where the problem of
scaling up to ship size exists. In nuclear power we are challenged to scale
down to ship size.
In the USA the greatest advocate of the GT-MHR has been General
Atomics Corp, in San Diego CA. General Atomics is, on a program
parallel to the present one, developing a conceptual description of a GTMHR
power plant for the FastShip Atlantic (FSA) cargo ship. This ship
application requires about 250 MW total. The GA concept for the FSA
application is a two-reactor plant, with two RV/PCV units operating in
parallel. This is a fortuitous development decision as it allows the present
project to use just one-half of this system for a conventional type container
ship.
The weights for a complete GT-MHR powerplant, including propulsion
motors, is given in Table 4. Added to that table is a column of comparable
line item weights for a direct drive low speed diesel powerplant. Note that
the diesel plant includes fuel for an estimate 6000 nm range. The nuclear
fuel is included as well, but this is not so closely tied to a particular range.

What is surprising is that the nuclear plant is competitive in weight with
the diesel plant. And, in addition, it produces 83% more power. In other
words it has a substantially improved weight per MegaWatt as compared
to the diesel. Of course, it shares this attribute with a gas turbine, which
is also lighter than a diesel, but as will be explored later the nuclear plant
has no additional fuel weight, whereas the gas turbine plant loses nearly
all of its weight advantage due to an increase in the associated fuel weight.

Table 4 - GT-MHR Propulsion plant weight, compared to diesel plant weight
Nuclear Plant Diesel Plant
Description 1/2 FSA MAN B+W K98
Reactors 450t
Shielding 1250t
Generator 800t Engines 2157t
Foundations 250t
Motors 400t
Motor Control 100t
Helium System 7.5t
Heat Exchange 50t Margin 216
Cabling 50t
Margin 336t Fuel 2817t
TOTAL 3693.5t 5190t
Power 125 MW Power 68 MW
Note Nuclear plant is one half of plant being conceived for
FastShip Atlantic
Diesel plant estimates are intentionally optimistic

Fuel Cell – Electric Propulsion

Fuel cells are an emerging technology. A fuel cell converts hydrogen fuel into
electricity directly. There are no moving parts – the electricity is released when
the hydrogen molecule is broken up.
As such, a fuel cell may be thought of as an alternative to a diesel generator. It is
indeed such an alternative, with the advantage of having no moving parts and a
very high fuel conversion efficiency.
The fuel cell reaction works only on the hydrogen in the fuel. When running a
fuel cell with a hydrocarbon liquid fuel it is necessary to first reform the fuel into
hydrogen and CO2. As part of or prior to the reformation, it is also vital to
remove the sulfur from the fuel before it is used. This process represents an
ancillary load on the cell, and requires additional space and weight.
Also, the fuel cell reaction is chemically the same as combustion: Hydrogen is
combined with oxygen and released as H2O vapor. Fuel cells thus have the same
air intake and exhaust uptake requirements as combustion engines. They also
produce waste heat, which is dissipated to cooling water. In all these senses the
fuel cell is a direct replacement of a diesel generator.
The advantages of fuel cells are that they lack moving parts, which implies
reliability. This is only true, however, for the fuel cell itself. The fuel reformer
will certainly be mechanically complex. As will be shown below fuel cells also
demonstrate high power density and high thermal efficiency. Use of fuel cells
may potentially result in a reduction in plant weight, a reduction in plant
complexity, and a negligible reduction in fuel consumption. These advantages
may be enough to draw electric propulsion into the ranks of container ships.

Current market scenario :

Norway is investing in environmental friendly technologies. The Westcon shipyard in Rogaland will start testing fuel cells in a couple of months.Use of fuel cells can reduce the climate gas emissions of maritime transport by 50 %.
The gas-driven supply ship "Viking Lady", owned by the ship owner Eidesvik, will be the first test center in the world for use of fuel cells on board a merchant ship. "Viking Lady" is the third supply ship to be run on LNG (Liquid Natural Gas). The gas will also be fuel for the fuel cell that will produce 320 kw. That is sufficient to function as an auxiliary engine for electricity supply on board, but not to run the ship itself.
The investment in fuel cells for ships represents an environmental revolution for the shipping industry. The Norwegian-German project "Fellowship" is a major step in a positive direction. The fuel cell will be connected to the power supply system and it will contribute to the running of the ship.
Most importantly, the research and experience made on "Viking Lady" will enable future use of fuel cells in the shipping industry. Project leader in Det Norske Veritas, Thomas Hebe Tronstad, believes fuel cells will be competitive in the future. - There is a still a lot of work to be done, but I am convinced that fuel cells is the power of the future, he says. In 100 years I doubt we will find many combustion engines on board Norwegian ships.
It is the German company, MTU Onsite Energy, which has developed the fuel cell that will be tested. Fuel cells are already being used for redundant power supply on land. Using it on-shore in a static environment is very different from using it on board a ship in constant movement with sometimes rough weather conditions. Thomas Hebe Tronstad regards the adjustment of the current fuel cell technology to a marine environment, as one of the biggest challenges.
The next step is to test parts of the equipment on-shore at Wärtsilas facilities at Stord, outside Bergen. This testing will start in the beginning of April.

There are no fuel cells on the market specifically configured for ship
propulsion. However, fuel cells by their very nature are assembled out of
“stacks” of cell elements, in a fashion similar to the way batteries consist
of assembled cells. Because of this inherently modular design fuel cells
can relatively easily be assembled to almost any size. Nevertheless, there
are at present no known fuel cells over 1 MW.

Net fuel cell plant efficiency (from the VINDICATOR project discussed
below) ranges from 42% at 10% load to 51% at most-efficient load. This
translates to an equivalent Specific Fuel Consumption of 165 to 200 g/
kW-hr. This compares quite favorably with a low speed diesel at a catalog
(presumably “best case” fuel consumption of 171 g/kW-hr. Thus total
ship fuel consumptions will be similar between fuel cells and low speed
diesels.
VINDICATOR FUEL CELL ------------ LOW SPEED DIESEL
625 kW --------------- 68000 kW
11 t Power generation total -----------------2157 t Diesel Engine
Net: 56.8 kW / tonne ----------------------Net: 31.5 kW / tonne
Net: 17.6 kg/kW -----------------------------------Net: 31.7 kg/kW

generator sets. The hydrogen fuel cell stack is smaller and more compact
than the portable generators they replace. However, the fuel cell reaction
works only on the hydrogen in the fuel. When running a fuel cell with a
liquid hydrocarbon fuel it is necessary to first reform the fuel into
hydrogen and CO2. This process represents an ancillary load on the cell,
and requires additional space and weight.
Perhaps the most mature fuel cell demonstration project was a project to
install fuel cell propulsion generators on the USCGC VINDICATOR. The
VINDICATOR is a former T-AGOS monohull ship, driven by two 800 hp
motors energized by four 600 kW diesel generators. The project,
performed by JJMA under contract to the US Coast Guard, was to replace
the diesel generators with Molten Carbonate fuel cells.
The project concluded that the replacement was feasible, but that the fuel
cell power plant would be slightly larger and heavier than the medium
speed diesels they were replacing. The figures given in the JJMA final
report are as follows:
􀂃 Length 26 ft (7.9m)
􀂃 Width 7 ft (2.1m)
􀂃 Height 11.5 ft (3.35m)
􀂃 Weight 12,000 lbs (Stack only)
est. 24,000 lbs complete module (11 t)
􀂃 Power 625 kW

Referances:
ALTERNATIVE POWERING FOR MERCHANT SHIPS : CCDoTT Chris B. McKesson, PE
FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY - DNV frode sudmanan berntsn
navy-matters.beedall.com
http://www.fas.org/
http://www.zemships.eu/
Nandkishore Gitte

Low Sulfur Fuel: Impacts on the Marine Industry,

2009-04-08T18:34:00.009+05:30

International legislation requiring use of low sulfur fuels by ships at sea means
significant changes for engine builders, lubricant providers and many ship owners.

Overview.
International legislation to decrease pollution from ships at sea includes measures to reduce the amount of sulfur in marine fuels. What exactly are the new requirements, what are the impacts on the operation of crosshead diesel engines, and what are the different lubrication options possible for ship owners? Engine builders have their own requirements, and oil companies have also developed strategies to respond. Each engine must be evaluated based on its own unique operational conditions in order to select the optimum alternative.

The International Maritime Organization’s MARPOL Annex VI “Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships” imposed stricter pollution regulations, including limits on sulfur oxide. In some geographic areas (called SOx Emission Control Areas — or SECAs), restrictions on sulfur in fuel are particularly stringent. Those areas include the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. Some regulations have already been implemented. Others are to come.

Here are key deadlines for Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO):
I May 2005 — A cap of 4.5 percent sulfur in fuel is imposed globally.

I May 2006 — A cap of 1.5 percent sulfur is imposed in the Baltic Sea.

I August 2007 — A cap of 1.5 percent is to be imposed in the North Sea.

Three categories of ship owners

Impacts of the new regulations on engine wear and maintenance depend on whether a vessel will be operating
in a regulated area (SECA) that requires use of Low Sulfur Heavy Fuel (LSF). Although several engine manufacturers define LSF as being 1.5 percent sulfur or less, the marine industry must still agree on the term’s exact definition.

For purposes of assessing the impact of LSF on vessels,ships fall into three major categories:

I Full-time use of LSF: Ship owners operating primarily
in regulated areas will be using LSF full time. This group must decide whether to operate a 70 TBN oil at a lower feed rate (operator should refer to OEM guidelines for length of time operating on a 70 TBN oil even at
reduced feed rates), or run a 40 TBN lubricant.

I Part-time use of LSF: Vessels operating only part time
in regulated areas need to understand the lubrication issue. This group represents a large portion of the deep
sea fleet.

I No Use of LSF: Vessels not required to use LSF will operate in their current lubrication regime.

Decisions for ship owners

Ship owners who operate vessels part time in regulated areas must make a choice, dictated in part by the sulfur content of the fuel and how long the engine will run continuously on the fuel.

1. Use two lubricants. When operating in regulated areas they can switch to a lower-TBN cylinder oil
(TBN 40) formulated for use with low sulfur fuel or

2. Optimize feed rate. They can stay with a standard-
TBN cylinder oil (TBN 70), but use it at an optimum feed-rate setting while monitoring engine wear.

3. Consider a combination. Under certain circum-
stances (i.e. very low sulfur fuel), customers may be required to lower rates and switch to 40 TBN.

In all cases, optimizing feed rates is recommended.

Technical Impacts on Crosshead Diesel Operation

For ship owners, the technical implications of the regulations are significant and involve making informed choices about fuels, lubricants and maintenance.

Effects on fuels

For vessels switching back and forth between high and low sulfur fuels, ship owners need to understand the following fuel-related issues:

I Incompatibility of different fuels
I Impact on wear (scuffing)

Impacts on lubricants

From a lubricant standpoint, the major issue in switching back and forth between high and low sulfur fuels is ensuring the lubricant’s ability to control corrosion and wear.

The use of a high-TBN lubricant in a low sulfur environment can produce excessive hard deposits. This is due to high thermal loads on un-reacted neutralizing additives. These deposits form primarily on the crown land and impact the oil film, leading to scuffing and ultimately to deposits behind the ring and in the ring groove.

An additional consequence is that the high-TBN oil used in a low sulfur fuel environment can reduce corrosion to the point that the liner surface becomes too smooth and unable to hold the oil. This is commonly referred to as a lack of “controlled corrosion.” When this happens, wear can take place, and the liner’s surface roughness becomes polished and continues to be unable to hold the lubricant. If the condition continues, scuffing can occur due to metal-to-metal contact.

To reduce these problems, ship owners can consider the following:

I Proper balance. In order to ensure controlled corrosion
and/or the feed rate

I Low-TBN oil. Use lower-TBN (40 TBN) oil if appropriate.
and good liner condition, balance both the TBN of the oil,

Proper oil formulation. As TBN is decreased, so is he detergency of the lubricant and hence its ability to
minimize piston deposits. The oil formulator must compensate for this loss in detergency by properly
re-balancing the formulation with additional and/or other fortifying additives.

Adjusting feed rates

Feed-rate adjustment is another option in dealing with low sulfur fuels. In some cases, in a low sulfur environment, the engine can continue to operate on a standard 70 TBN oil by reducing the net feed rate. The concern is whether the amount of lubricant in the cylinder will be adequate to cover the entire surface and provide enough acid neutralization to ensure that corrosion is kept in check. MAN B&W has conducted significant research on this issue. Development of its Alpha ACC System and feed-rate algorithms based on
sulfur levels has proven to be very effective. Wärtsilä, particularly with its Tribo Pack design, has achieved good performance in a load-dependent feed-rate scheme.

Operating with standard 70 TBN oil.
The question is frequently asked, “How long can a crosshead engine operate on low sulfur fuel with a standard
70 TBN oil without making feed-rate adjustments to compensate?” This is a difficult question to answer because of the limited experience that the industry has been able to accumulate. As a general rule, feed-rate compensation is essential from the point of switching to a lower sulphur fuel. MAN B&W limits the time of such an operation (i.e. low sulfur fuel and 70 TBN at minimum feed rate) to 1-2 weeks.
It is likely that this general rule may be modified as experience provides the industry with a better understanding of the dynamics of low sulfur operations.

Water Separator

It is especially important to ensure satisfactory operation of the water separators when the feed rate has been reduced to compensate for fuel sulfur. The influx of large amounts of water onto a surface with a very thin coating of oil could result in the oil film being washed away, with metal-to-metal contact occurring. It is therefore highly recommended that increased diligence be placed on ensuring proper separator functioning.

Monitoring engine condition.

No two engines/applications are the same. Factors such as operational load, intake air humidity, age, condition of components, feed rate and fuel combustion characteristics, as well as fuel sulfur level, all play a role in determining the wear dynamics of the engine. Therefore, although general recommendations can be made on how to best operate on low sulfur fuel, these recommendations do not preclude the necessity for monitoring the actual condition of the engine. All OEMs strongly advocate frequent cylinder inspections. This is of particular importance in the early days of low sulfur fuel operation until such time as the industry develops a better knowledge base and can better forecast expected influences of the low sulfur fuel.

Considering Storage and logistic.

As we move into a low sulfur environment, ship owners must make decisions about whether or not to store two
types of fuels and possibly two different types of lubricants onboard. More storage will result in a number of cost, design and space-related issues. A majority of ship owners polled by ExxonMobil about how they plan to address the low sulfur issues say that on existing engines they plan to remain on the 70 TBN cylinder oil and compensate by feed rate reductions. New ship buildings are more likely to have an additional lubricant tank installed at the shipyard during construction, but even with new buildings, the general direction is a preference not to endure the additional cost.

Lubrication Options When Running on Low Sulfur Fuel

The decision on whether to switch to low-TBN cylinder oil or remain on standard 70 TBN oil while adjusting the feed rate can be complicated. In some extreme cases, where the fuel sulfur level is below 0.5 percent, it may be necessary to use low-TBN oil and lower the feed rate. This should be reviewed with the OEM before implementation.
Additionally, frequent inspections should be done to ensure that the lesser amount of detergency is not allowing an unacceptable level of deposits to form.

Design differences between engine nufacturers

Crosshead diesel engines manufactured by MAN B&W and Wärtsilä have operational and design differences to consider.

MAN B&W has the following practical approach for operating
on different fuel sulfur levels:

The correlation between fuel sulfur level and cylinder oil can be shown as follows

Sulfur content Recommended
in fuel oil (%) cylinder oil (TBN)

Less than 1 TBN 40/50 recommended,

Changeover from TBN 70 to TBN 40/50
only when operating for more than
one week on <1% color="#ff0000" size="4">Two key factors to consider

The decision on whether to use a low-TBN cylinder oil depends on two factors:

How long the engine will run continuously on that fuel.

How low the sulfur level of the fuel is.

A general rule is that if the engine is only running on the low sulfur fuel for a period of less than 1-2 weeks (continuous running), it would probably be acceptable to remain on the 70 TBN cylinder lube oil with an optimized feed rate. If running in this environment, Wärtsilä recommends consideration of reducing the engine load to <80>Custom blending — a future option?

Another approach, which is being investigated, is custom-blending an optimum TBN lubricant on board the vessel.

Other considerations for choosing the
low-TBN option

In deciding when it is best to choose the low-TBN option versus the feed rate reduction option, a ship owner should first and foremost be guided by the published recommendations of the OEM.

This decision also depends on logistics. If the vessel can handle the additional storage of low-TBN oil, its use would be the preferable method. In this scenario, the ship operator can usually maintain existing feed rate while ensuring appropriate corrosion protection.

The age of the engine can also be a factor. In some older engines, with standard lubricators, the feed rate adjustment process can be somewhat labor intensive. Ship owners who have manual adjusting lubricators may want to consider having a supply of low-TBN cylinder lube oil onboard for short-term operations on low sulfur fuel. Owners with more modern engines, with computer-controlled feed rate adjustment capability, may find that varying the feed rate is their best option. In extreme cases, where the sulfur level is very low (less than 0.5 percent sulfur), reducing the feed rate may not be the best option because it may subject the cylinder to localized oil starvation and increase the likelihood of wear. In this case, the owner should contact the OEM
and ExxonMobil for guidance.

Policy on oil for older engines

Since feed-rate adjustment on some older engines can be labor intensive, some operators may consider maintaining a supply of both a 70 TBN and 40 TBN oil. In modern engines where feed-rate adjustments can be more easily implemented, it may be more effective to lower feed rate when operating on low sulfur fuel, provided that the OEMs minimum feed rate is not exceeded.

Predictive maintenance techniques

Multiple influences can impact corrosion, the development of deposits and subsequent wear in two-stroke engines. Factors such as the initial TBN of the cylinder lube, the fuel sulfur level, feed rates, engine load and the quality of the intake charge air all can play a role in the reliability of the engine. It is therefore ExxonMobil’s firm position that when a ship owner makes a change from the normal operating conditions — either by using a low-TBN cylinder oil or adjusting the feed rate — particular attention needs to be paid to predictive maintenance techniques.

Feed Rate Optimization Program

Recommendations are for frequent scavenge port inspections at a minimum. To enhance condition monitoring, these inspections can be supplemented by analysis of the scavenge space drain oil, either by land-based laboratory, as well as accompanied by onboard devices. ExxonMobil’s Feed Rate Optimization program offers the tools that enable a ship owner to assess scrapedown oil samples from each individual cylinder. The ship owner should establish a baseline understanding of the engine’s wear dynamics under normal operating conditions. This baseline can then be compared to the operating conditions when low-TBN cylinder oil or adjusted feed rates is in place.

The key parameters that the ship owners should evaluate are the iron and the residual TBN of the drain oil. If the amount of iron in the drain oil is increasing while operating at a lowered feed rate, it may be advisable to increase the feed rate in increments of 0.05 g/kWh. This should also be done in the event that the residual TBN of the drain oil falls below a value of 10 TBN. In cases where the residual TBN is adequate (greater than 20 TBN) yet the iron level is increasing, the ship owner should inspect the engine for possible abrasive wear conditions.

Also recommends that a scavenge drain sample, compared against baseline data, be taken after one
or more of the following events occur:

I After changing to lower or higher sulfur fuel
I When engine loading increased by 10 percent.
I After feed rate has been lowered regardless of the amount.

Nandkishore S Gitte.

Low sulfur fuel a new challenge for diesel operators.

2009-04-08T11:19:00.004+05:30

Ever since the first professional mariners went to sea, they have learned to adapt to changes. The introduction of the internal combustion engine and more advanced control systems brought both benefits and challenges. The latest challenge is the impact of emissions regulations and subsequent changes in fuels needed to meet those emission standards. Mariners who need to deal with these dramatic changes may have very little knowledge of how they can impact operations, costs and equipment.

The Clean Air Act has mandated that sulfur levels be reduced to less than 15 parts-per-million (ppm) in distillate fuels. A good source for information on the implementation dates of these changes can be found at www.clean-diesel.org. The Northeast and Middle Atlantic region are already at 500 ppm in marine diesel fuels. The remaining regions will switch to 500 ppm sulfur fuel by June 2010. All regions are scheduled to switch to Ultra Low Sulfur Diesel (ULSD), with a sulfur content of 15 ppm or less, in June 2012. One exception to these rules is California, which has already switched to ULSD fuel in many non-road applications. Although some of these dates are still well into the future, the reality is that refiners are now making ULSD which can be downgraded to LSD.

The process of removing sulfur has caused changes in many other properties of the fuel. On-road fuels have already made the switch to ULSD, and the problems caused by the changes in the fuel characteristics are well known. Fortunately, solutions are known and already proven. Bringing the experience and lessons learned from on-road fuels to marine applications requires knowing what problems to look for. Some of these changes have already arrived in the marine market. For example, fuels with 19 ppm sulfur can be downgraded and sold as an LSD (500 ppm) fuel. This fuel would have the properties and problems associated with ULSD.

The methods used in most refineries in North America to remove the sulfur are known as hydrotreating. These methods are very efficient at removing sulfur, but also make other physical changes to the fuel’s chemical composition. The consequences of sulfur reduction include removal of natural lubricity compounds, natural conductivity properties and changes in combustion properties.

Fuel serves three major functions in a diesel engine. It is the lubrication for fuel pumps and injectors, a coolant for the injectors and the energy source to drive the engine. The reduction in natural lubricity compounds leaves no protective barrier between metal surfaces, resulting in damage to vital engine components. This would be similar to, but not quite as drastic, as replacing lube oil with a solvent. Imagine the damage. For this reason ASTM, an international standards organization, put a lubricity specification on all D975 middle distillate fuels in 2005 in order to keep the fuels fit for purpose and protect consumers. A special fact to keep in mind is that the current lubricity test was developed to protect rotary fuel pumps and may not be the best indicator for modern fuel injectors or barrel and piston type pumps where clearances are smaller.

Without the use of lubricity additives, most fuel would not have the lubricity required to protect the fuel injection systems. The ASTM specification requires that the wear scar from the lubricity test be 520 microns or less. There are many original equipment manufacturers that recommend a wear scar of 460 microns or even lower, and that is the European specification. The only way to determine if enough lubricity additive has been added to the fuel is having the fuel tested using ASTM D6079. If it is determined that more lubricity is needed, there are several chemistries of lubricity improvers that have been used. With the higher treat rates needed for ULSD fuels, some of these additives have been found to cause problems. Mono acids, amides and dimer acids additives may react with water, caustic carryover or other additive packages that may be present in the fuel or lube oil. Fully synthetic esters do not cause these problems.

The removal of sulfur and other compounds has decreased the fuel’s conductivity, creating a potentially dangerous situation. A static charge can readily build up in the fuel while it is being pumped and/or going through fine filtration. Unfortunately, ultra low sulfur fuels no longer have the ability to dissipate the charge without an additive. This can lead to sudden arcing or sparking in the vapor phase, often with catastrophic results. Static dissipater additives are required for ULSD fuels and most LSD fuel. These are added most often at the terminal. The ASTM specification for conductivity of a D975 fuel is 25 picosiemens/meter at time and temperature of loading. This specification is not found in marine fuels, which may lead to more dangerous incidents occurring.

Another important word of caution when selecting a lubricity additive is that many lubricity additives have been proven to disarm the static dissipater additive over time. This can cause the conductivity of a fuel to drop to far riskier levels and result in the danger of ignition from static electricity.

Fully synthetic esters have the least effect on static dissipater additives.

Sulfur is antagonistic towards microbial growth, meaning that its presence helps control the reproduction and growth in fuel storage tanks and systems. The removal of the sulfur and phenolic compounds makes an ideal situation for microbial growth to occur. Biocides have been necessary in diesel fuel for years when the fuel is stored in certain regions. With the addition of B2 and B5 biodiesel blends into the fuel distribution network, the use of biocides may become a necessity. The Bxx blends can hold more water molecules in suspension, which spreads out where microbial, fungal, and yeast growth will occur. Proper housekeeping and the use of a biocide that works in both the water phase and the fuel phase is the only way to ensure that microbial problems are kept at a minimum.

If light cycle oil (LCO) is added to the marine distillate fuel supply there can be serious stability issues and other problems. LCO tends to degrade rapidly and turn to sludge. It may look like diesel fuel when it is new, but without stabilizers, it can clog fuel filters and lines. LCO also has a low cetane number between 20 and 25, so it can contribute to rough starting, rough idling, poor combustion, deposit formation and very high emissions. Additives containing a cetane improver can help to avoid these combustion problems and help to reduce emissions.

The switch to LSD and then to ULSD can be a smooth transition if the proper steps are taken. Knowing what problems may occur and how to treat the fuel to avoid these problems is an important step. The maritime industry is under pressure to reduce emissions and improve efficiency. Maintaining engine reliability, while switching to these cleaner fuels is imperative for the clean and safe operation of vessels. The use of fuel treatment is present at the refineries and terminals, but to ensure vessel reliability it may be necessary to take additional steps.

Nandkishore Gitte.

The Vessel Owner and Port State Control

2009-04-07T15:10:00.006+05:30

Port State Control (PSC) agreements between maritime nations and the International Maritime Organization give every seaport country the right to make independent
inspections of all ships calling their ports. PSC inspectors are usually specialized, although in the United States, the Coast Guard’s Marine Safety Office has been given this responsibility. PSC inspectors have the power to detain a vessel in port whose condition or equipment has been determined to be sub-standard. This detention prevents the vessel from leaving that port until the deficiencies are remediated. Generally, the courts of a port state do not interfere with PSC inspections, so the shipowner’s options in freeing a detained ship are limited to
those that satisfy the inspector. In many cases, PSC inspectors defer to the vessel’s statutory-certificate surveyor—the class surveyor who originally issued the
vessel’s certificates—when deciding what repairs will be required. However, PSC
inspectors are not bound to do so, and they even have the power to reject even
validly issued statutory certificates.
In some matters, the PSC inspector is bound by international standards like SOLAS, which imposes requirements for safety, navigation, and communication gear.

Theoretically, a vessel with all required safety gear onboard may not be detained for lack of such gear. Detentions for lack or expiration of SOLAS equipment are not the shipowner’s greatest challenge, however, since they may be remediated by
simply purchasing and placing the required gear onboard. The most difficult detentions are those relating to hull condition. In this area, the
safety of the vessel is a matter of opinion—two surveyors may have radically
different opinions of a given vessel’s hull condition—and if the PSC inspector rejects the ship’s certificates, the shipowner has little or no recourse but to bring the ship into compliance with his standards. It should be remembered that
in many ports there is a tacit (and sometimes not so tacit) understanding that the longer a vessel is detained in the country, and the more extensive the list of required repairs and supplies, the more money will flow into local pockets. This is
especially true for ships in the tramp trade: because local officials know the ship may never return, whatever money the locals want to extract out
of her will have to come from her present port call. Corrupt
PSC inspectors, or those merely seeking to help their
neighbors, therefore have every reason to find deficiencies and very little
reason not to. PSC standards wildly vary between countries and regions. Generally, the countries and regions with the strictest standards are, in descending order: (1) United Kingdom; (2) United States; (3) all Scandinavian countries; (4) Holland; (5) Belgium; (6) Germany; (7) the rest of Europe; (8) Mexico; (9) Asia; (10) all Caribbean countries; (11) Latin America; and (12) Africa. Although
PSC inspections are rare in most of the countries of Latin America, the Caribbean, and Africa, when they are made, it is typically for the sole purpose of obtaining a payment for clearing the detentions.

Guidelines for Avoiding PSC Detentions

Make a favorable first Impration.

Before a ship-owner sends his ship to a port with active PSC regimens, he should ensure
that the vessel looks good at first glance. It is well-known that PSC inspectors decide
how intensive their inspections will be based upon their first impression of the ship. Many ships with derelict engine rooms and wasted forepeak tanks have escaped serious inspections by having well-painted decks and clean saloons for the inspectors to drink their coffee in.

Don’t overlook minor certificates.
The shipowner should ensure that every certificate and document is valid. Many times the master will have overlooked deficiencies in minor documents like the De-
ratting Certificate or Garbage Log, but these small deficiencies give the PSC
inspector a reason—or at least an excuse—to make an extensive inspection.

Make main areas presentable.

The first PSC inspection is generally cursory, and includes the deck, accommodations, hold, engine room, and bridge. If all looks satisfactory in these areas, it is extremely unlikely that the inspector will want to go into tanks or other enclosed spaces. The

master should therefore ensure that any potential deficiencies in these areas are corrected before the initial visit—which could come as soon as the vessel makes All Fast. Many times, a small deficiency that could have been cleared for a few hundred dollars leads to
deficiencies that ultimately cannot be cleared at all.

Establish remediation procedures.

If the shipowner decides to enter a high-PSC-activity port with a ship having condition
or equipment issues, he should have resources and procedures in place to clear the most likely deficiencies without delay. For every week that the ship sits under detention, the dangers of other shoreside claims, and even fraudulent seizure, increase dramatically.

Tow the ship to International water.

The owner of a ship under detention should investigate the possibility of using a tug
to tow her to international waters. Certification requirements for a vessel under tow—particularly if unmanned—are greatly relaxed, and most PSC authorities will allow a
detained vessel to be towed out. Sometimes, especially in the United States, the Coast
Guard will issue a clearance under tow only to a shipyard where the deficiency will be
remediated. The shipowner may then find that his best recourse is to obtain clearance to the nearest foreign shipyard. After the vessel reaches international waters, the shipowner may make his own decision as to his best interests in the matter. A master of a vessel with valid certificates may cancel a tow at any time, for any or no reason, and the vessel may not be stopped on the high seas for reasons of condition of hull or equipment except by her own flag state.
However, in most cases where the vessel is seaworthy but still can't clear her detentions—a wonderful irony not lost on shipowners—PSC will usually approve a tow to international waters, where the vessel will be free to proceed foreign under her own power.

Set limits on what you will spend.

The shipowner should always be aware of the actual, real-market value of his detained
vessel. Many owners spend far in excess of their vessels’ real values in trying to
remediate PSC detentions, sometimes without ever freeing the vessel. This
problem is especially acute in countries where PSC inspectors act in de facto
alliance with shoreside suppliers and repairmen: the inspector will first detain the
vessel for smaller items to get the owner to commit to the repairs, then he will impose
new and increasingly expensive repairs on every re-inspection. This is done
under the often-validated theory that the more the owners invest in vessel.
Now the more reluctant he will be to abandon her later. To avoid this, the shipowner
should decide immediately whether present and foreseeable detention items can be remediated within his budget. If they cannot, he should decide whether to
attempt an alternate resolution such as towing or to abandon the vessel immediately.

Obtain assistance from vessels surveyor.

In questions of vessel hull or deck condition, the shipowner may be well-advised to fly the vessel’s class surveyor—the one who personally issued her certificates—into the PSC port. He may be able to reassure the PSC inspector that the certificates were
validly issued and that the vessel is actually seaworthy. Often, as a fellow-surveyor,
he can negotiate on a personal basis with the PSC inspector for more reasonable
requirements. Many times, the first thing the PSC will do upon detaining a vessel is to
require a visit from her local class surveyor. Unfortunately, in some
countries, the PSC inspector and the class surveyor may both be receiving kickbacks
from local repair interests, so it is even more important to fly in the vessel's certificate
surveyor. Since the vessel’s certificate surveyor and the local surveyor both work for
the same entity, theoretically they must enforce the same standards. In other words,
the class society cannot have two surveyors requiring different things of the same
ship. Since the certificate surveyor will have to stand behind his survey (he cannot
afford to admit that he certificated a sub-standard vessel), he will do his best to
obtain the cooperation of the local class surveyor. Plus, of course, he is being paid for
his time by the shipowner.

Conclusion :

The key to avoiding Port State Control problems is knowing Port State Control
standards (and, by corollary, class standards) and knowing the vessel’s actual condition.
Owners who are actively involved in their vessels’ maintenance are seldom surprised by PSC detentions. And although there are unjustifiable detentions, especially in England and Northern Europe, the great majority of detentions worldwide relate to actual vessel deficiencies. A smart owner knows what countries his vessel can trade. Many owners of
vessels in the Caribbean market advertise them as “non-US traders” to alert potential charterers that they will not allow their vessels to call US ports. Conversely,
owners who are confident that their vessels can pass Coast Guard inspections
advertise them as “US traders” and charge higher rates. There is no question that the
Port State Control initiative has resulted in higher standards for vessels in international trade, with correspondingly higher costs for shippers and consumers. For the shipowner, however, Port State Control does not just mean a higher cost of doing business. It may well mean ruin. It is imperative, then, that he anticipate PSC inspections, prepare for them, and be ready to deal with their results. If he does not, he will soon be out of
business, for a ship that can’t leave harbor is no ship at all.

Nandkishore S Gitte.

Life At Sea : Archive

2008-08-07T08:44:00.005+05:30

Dear readers,

Here comes the time to sail back at sea and spend some quality time out there and do what we like most ; working on-board. And as usual most of the VLCC’s don’t have the internet, so wont be able keep posting for next 5 months and will miss all you readers.

Thank you for your regular appreciation and comments which acts as a fuel for me to propel through the bloging ocean. I also thank my friendly maritime bloggers

Gcaptain:
Sea-fever:
Marinebuzz
Robinstorm
Imc Brokers
Diesel-duck
Manu script
pinoymaritime

and all favorites in my blogosphere for turbo-charging me to excel.

I am desperate to come back soon and keep blogging. Till then you all can enjoy my past blog archive.

Keep smiling.

Nandkishore Gitte

We've Got Our Personal flotation devices .....Now What?

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/08/weve-got-our-pesonal-flotation-devices.html
I have a personal theory that the need and use of personal flotation devices, or life jackets, was borne of two general evolutionary events in history. These two events largely are unrelated to each other, but until they occurred, human civilization apparently didn't feel that such devices were important or necessary. …
2 days ago

LNG Ships and there Future

It is widely known that LNG shipping and LNG ship financing have seen an unprecedented boom in the last few years. More than 80 LNG ships have been ordered in the last two years alone, against a current fleet size of approximately 176. The competition among ship owners for this rapidly growing market is intense. The LNG ship financing market has faced similar trends – it has grown significantly and is extremely competitive. Given current market conditions, both LNG shipping companies and financiers must wonder whether this momentum can hold and, if so, for how long. The question is whether the market will follow a cyclical trend so common to the shipping sector at large or evolve in a different way.

Horrifying survival story of 2 Indians onboard 'Fort Longueuil'

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/08/horrifying-survival-story-of-2-indians.html

There were only two survivors from the 'Fort Longueuil'. The two men, both Indians, survived 4½ months on a life raft and then a further 18 months in a Japanese Prisoner of War Camp. They survived against incredible odds.Below are transcripts of the statements made by Thakar Miah and Mohamed Aftab in January 1946. …
4 days ago
Dawn of Women Marine Engineers in India.

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/07/dawn-of-women-marine-engineers-in-india.html

See-Saw between Ship and Shore.

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/07/see-saw-between-ship-and-shore.html

Introduction Seafaring work patterns involve periods of leave and seatime and the associated transition periods as the seafarer moves from one situation to the other. This post explores seafarers’ and their partner’s experiences of the different aspects of the work cycle. …
14 days ago

IMO sets deadlines for installation of ECDIS

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/07/imo-sets-deadlines-for-installation-of.html

OFFICER SHORTAGE DRIVES INITIATIVE FOR QUALITY

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/07/officer-shortage-drives-initiative-for.html

SHIPOWNERS AND MANAGERS HAVE RELIED ON THE PHILIPPINES AS THEWORLD’S LARGEST SUPPLIER OF SEAFARERS TO THE MERCHANT MARINE FLEET FOR MANY YEARS BY BANKING ON THEIR COMPETENCE AND SOME DEGREE OF LOYALTY, But the current shortage of officers being experienced by the shipping industry is forcing the …
32 days ago

Hundred Years of SOS : At a glance.

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/07/hundred-years-of-sos-at-glance.html
S.O.S ‘SOS’, the distress signal that saved thousands of lives, has turned 100 on (July 1). ‘SOS’, which is the commonly used description for the international morse code distress signal containing three dots, three dashes and three more dots, was first adopted by the German government in radio regulations on April 1, 1905. …
33 days ago

MAN B&W Released new ME-B Series Engine in Market.

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/06/man-b-released-new-me-b-series-engine.html

MAN Diesel has enhanced its electronic, low-speed, ME-B engine programme with the launch of the MAN B&W S46- and S60ME-B type engines. These add to the existing MAN B&W S35ME-B and S40ME-B engines that were introduced in mid-2006, and the S50ME-B that was introduced in early 2007. …
33 days ago

Supreme Court Slashes ($2 Billion) Exxon Valdez Damages, says 'Worst Oil Spill In American History'

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/06/supreme-court-slashes-2-billion-exxon.html
The Supreme Court on Wednesday slashed the $2.5 billion punitive damages award in the Exxon Valdez disaster to $500 million, a decision that could have broader implications for limiting how much courts can order businesses to pay. The decision was hailed by the business community and decried by environmentalists and Alaskans. …
40 days ago

Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project : The Reality check.

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/06/sethusamudram-shipping-canal-project.html
What is Sethusamudram Shipping Canal Project ? Sethusamudram Ship Channel Project proposes linking the Palk Bay and the Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka by creating a shipping channel through the shallow sea sometimes called Setu Samudram, and through the island chain of Rama's Bridge, also known as Adam's Bridge. …
40 days ago

Why foreign flags attract Indian seafarers ?

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/06/why-foreign-flags-attract-indian.html
An Indian seafarer working aboard a foreign-flagged vessel earns more than double what he would on an Indian-flagged carrier. This and the tax benefits have led to a large-scale drift of skilled manpower to ships flying foreign flags. …
49 days ago

Maritime archaeology

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/06/maritime-archaeology.html
Underwater cultural heritage is enormously rich and has immense potential. In recent years, it has attracted increasing attention from the scientific community and the general public. Over the centuries entire cities, have been swallowed by the waves, and thousands of ships have perished at sea. …
50 days ago

The world's earliest Dockyard / Shipyard @ Lothal,Gujarat-India.

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/06/worlds-earliest-shipyard-lothalgujarat.html
The world's earliest dockyards were built in the Harappan port city of Lothal circa 2400 BC in Gujarat, India. Lothal's dockyards connected to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river on the trade route between Harappan cities in Sindh and the peninsula of Saurashtra when the surrounding Kutch desert was a part of the Arabian Sea. …
52 days ago

When Women Turn Pirate

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/06/when-women-turn-pirate.html
It might readily be supposed that piracy is strictly a male domain. But, in fact, the ledgers of history are filled with a surprising number of piratical accounts featuring swashbuckling piratesses, or female pirates. How or why did women enter this dangerous, disreputable, high-stakes, rum-swilling male domain and become pirates? Female pirates have been around 600 B.C. …
52 days ago

IMO Award for Exceptional Bravery at Sea

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/06/imo-award-for-exceptional-bravery-at.html
IMO Award for Exceptional Bravery at SeaThe inaugural IMO Award for Exceptional Bravery at Sea has been presented to two seafarers who risked their lives to save others in a dramatic rescue operation in gale-force winds.Second Officer Mustafa Topiwala of the 83,155 dwt Bahamas-registered oil/bulk …
52 days ago

Seafarers Health and Sexuality

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/04/seafarers-health-and-sexuality.html
Introduction This blog will consider seafaring and sexual behaviour, both in the context of long-term and casual sexual relationships. It will go on to discuss the specific health issues raised by seafarers and their partners, including mental health issues and the effects of traumatic incidents on well-being. …
127 days ago

These are the wisdoms held deeply in the heart of the seafarers wife

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/03/these-are-wisdoms-held-deeply-in-heart.html

She watches closely, as he ascends the plank, to the ship that will now become his home, She stands fast and steady against the crowds, that his voice fade not from her ears, and his love not vanish in her memory. As he reached the ship and stood upon her deck, he raises his voice and says: Though the sea bid me leave you, It is not without regret that I do so, yet I must go. …
134 days ago

Seafarer fatigue where next?

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/03/seafarer-fatigue-where-next.html

Introduction According to the current provisions in STCW, it is acceptable for a seafarer to work for 98 hours a week. This can be compared with 72 hours per week in ILO 180 and 48 hours per week in the European Working Time Directive. …
134 days ago

Yes, I am Seafarers Wife.

http://mylifeatsea.blogspot.com/2008/03/yes-i-am-seafarers-wife.html
Everyday I struggle in living a life without him. From the moment I wake up, I think of him. I miss him. I miss waking up with him at my side and with his arms around me and mine around him. I miss our tender kisses as we exchange good mornings and i love yous. I miss our sweet mushy moments. …
136 days ago

HUMARINIYA

The key to a good practical joke is execution - well of course, you say.You need a well meaning eager beaver victim.You need professional cohorts.And you need to be convincing in your setup.Generally, most practical jokes involve getting some newbie/greenie to do something, which, on shore, would seem absurd, but since it's a ship -it's a custom !

The Deep Blue Monsters

Tales of murderous rogue waves were once dismissed as seafaring myths, but it turns out the sailors were right all along. Graham Lawton fears for those in peril on the sea "We were in a storm and the tanker was running before the sea. This amazing wave came from the aft and broke over the deck. I didn't see it until it was alongside the vessel but it was special, much bigger than the others. It took us by surprise. I never saw one again." Philippe Lijour, first mate of the oil tanker Esso Languedoc, describing the huge wave that slammed into the ship off the east coast of South Africa in 1980.LIJOUR and his shipmates are lucky to be alive. They were struck by a rogue wave-a monstrous wall of water that rose out of nowhere and slammed onto the deck like the fist of god. Ships often don't survive an onslaught like that.

Equator Crossing Ceremony

Crossing the Line ceremonies matched the initiation ceremonies of many medieval guilds, and by the 16th century, a pattern of customs had emerged in European shipping to provide a ‘baptism’ for all sailors aboard who have not previously crossed the equator. Neptune, usually the oldest sailor who had crossed the equator the most…and his retinue would come over the bows of the ship and take over the deck. The retinue might consist of, among others, ‘Davy Jones’ or the Devil, two ‘Bears’, men dressed in skins who would pull Neptune’s chariot, a ‘Barber’ and a ‘Doctor’. Often Neptune was accompanied by Amphritrite, the wife of Triton or Neptune, usually a young sailor dressed up with a wig and outlandish female clothing.

Just for fun

There is always some list to check off when doing our day to day business. Arrival list, departure list, garbage list, fire list and now the Port List. But of course the engineering cadet will be shooed away as the Mate is too busy to draw it up right this minute, keep em coming back again and again. Of course a few up and downs to the bridge, will tune them in to the fact that the ship may be listing slightly to port or starboard - mmmm, port list.

Marine Oil spill: A threat to Environment.

Imagine yourself as a killer whale. You are swimming around when you decide to stick your head out of the water to take a breath. As you are taking a breath, you see a large stream of thick black oil heading your way. You go back under water only to find other animals dying one by one because the oil is damaging their bodies. This is the way some animals must die in the ocean. They die because of an oil spill occurring in their habitat.

Famous Mutiny onboard the H.M.S BOUNTY

HMS Bounty Known for a maritime mutiny that took place over 200 years ago, Bounty remains famous and infamous. Thousands cross her ample decks during port visits wondering what life was like then and now. You know her from her modern movies as well. In 1960, it was Marlon Brando as Fletcher Christian in Mutiny on the Bounty. Today, it is Johnny Depp as Captain Jack Sparrow in Pirates of the Caribbean – Dead Man's Chest

Mermaid Saga: Women of the Deep

A mermaid (from the Middle English mere in the obsolete sense 'sea' (as in maritime, the Latin mare, "sea") + maid(en)) is a legendary aquatic creature with the head and torso of human female and the tail of a fish. The male version of a mermaid is called a merman; the gender-neutral plural is merfolk or merpeople. Various cultures throughout the world have similar figures.

Ship Breaking : Environmental and Health Hazard

Ship breaking or ship demolition involves breaking up of ships for scrap.Until the late twentieth century, ship breaking took place in port cities in the "First World," including the United States. Today, however, most ship breaking yards are in developing nations, principally Bangladesh, China, and India, due to lower labor costs and less stringent environmental regulations dealing with the disposal of lead paint and other toxic substances. However, there are a few "breakers" in the United States that still operate.

TITANIC: 'The Ship That Never Sank'?

One of the most controversial and complex theories regarding the sinking of the Titanic was put forward by Robert Gardiner in his book 'TITANIC: The Ship That Never Sank?' (published 1999).In it, Gardiner draws on several events and coincidences that occurred in the months, days and hours leading up to the sinking of the Titanic to form his theory. Put simply, his theory is that the ship that hit the iceberg on 14 April 1912 was in fact the Titanic's sister-ship the Olympic, disguised as the Titanic. All this was part of an insurance scam of huge proportions by the White Star Line.

Sea-sickness

Seasickness happens when the body, inner ear, and eyes all send different signals to the brain, resulting in confusion and queasiness. It is a problem generally attributed to disturbance in the balance system of the inner ear (vestibular) system. Your sensory perception gets out of synch as these nerve fibers attempt to compensate for the unfamiliar motion of the ship moving through water.The movement of a boat on a fluid sea creates stress in the portions of the brain responsible for balance. Perhaps that stress causes the brain to start malfunctioning as the land based environment it understands is suddenly not behaving as it should.

Freedom Ship: The World's Biggest Ship

No cruise ship that has ever been built can compare to the enormity of Freedom Ship. Imagine a mile-long stretch of 25-story-tall buildings in New York City; now imagine that floating on the water. If you can picture that, then you get the general idea of Freedom Ship's size. At 4,320 feet (1,317 meters) long, 725 feet (221 m) wide and 340 feet (103 m) tall, the ship is taller than the length of a football field and wider than two football fields put together. And not only can a ship that size float on water, but it may be navigating the world's oceans as early as 2005.Freedom Ship will dwarf any ocean-going vessel operating today -- it will be more than four times longer than any current cruise ship.

Is the Career at sea the same today as yesterday?

Many seafarers are asked how they ended up at sea! Just like somebody may ask a teacher or a bricklayer why he or she became one, the answers tend to be varied and often without path to the end result. One common reason for entering a particular career is because "my father did it and so did my grandfather". Some extremely obvious reasons for going to sea might have been to get away from home or to see the world; equally so many rusty seafarers today embarked upon their careers for lack of anything else to do, because some cranky careers advisor suggested they do so or because they had been recently dumped by the school hottie!

WHY IS A SHIP CALLED SHE?

A ship is called a ‘she’ because there is always a great deal of bustle around her;There is usually a gang of men about,She has a waist and stays;

Ah, the romance of the sea

Bermuda Triangle: Mysteries & Realities

The Bermuda Triangle, also known as the Devil's Triangle, is an area in the Atlantic Ocean where the disappearance of many people and their aircraft and surface vessels has been attributed by some to the paranormal, a suspension of the laws of physics, or activity by extraterrestrial beings. Some of the disappearances involve a level of mystery which is often popularly explained by a variety of theories beyond human error or acts of nature. An abundance of documentation for most incidents suggests that the Bermuda Triangle is a sailors' legend, later embellished by professional writers.

Pirates Of Sea

Piracy is a robbery committed at sea, or sometimes on the shore, by an agent without a commission from a sovereign nation. Seaborne piracy against transport vessels remains a significant issue (with estimated worldwide losses of US$13 to $16 billion per year[1]), particularly in the waters between the Pacific and Indian Oceans, off the Somali coast, and in the Strait of Malacca and Singapore, which are used by over 50,000 commercial ships a year. A recent[1] surge in piracy off the Somali coast spurred a multi-national effort led by the United States to patrol the waters near the Horn of Africa to combat piracy. While boats off the coasts of South America and the Mediterranean Sea are still assailed by pirates, the Royal Navy and the U.S. Coast Guard have nearly eradicated piracy in U.S. waters and the Caribbean Sea.

Marine Industry & IMO

Shipping is perhaps the most international of the world's industries, serving more than 90 per cent of global trade by carrying huge quantities of cargo cost effectively, cleanly and safely.The ownership and management chain surrounding any ship can embrace many countries and ships spend their economic life moving between different jurisdictions, often far from the country of registry. There is, therefore, a need for international standards to regulate shipping - which can be adopted and accepted by all.

LIFE ABOARD A SHIP

During my vacation days ashore, many friends have asked me what life is like aboard ship. It is a good question, especially for a prospective passenger. It isn't an easy one to answer, either. Much of your experience aboard ship depends upon your temperament, and your situation in life. Are you a person who doesn't mind being alone, or do you need company? If you have some free time, would you like to read a book or to have a party? Are you single, or married with children? No matter what your answers to these questions are, you may or may not enjoy going to sea, but they do have an effect on the type of ship and type of voyage.

Marine Engineering: An Introduction..

Marine Engineers are the members of a ship's crew that operate and maintain the propulsion and other systems onboard the vessel. Marine Engineering staff also deal with the "Hotel" facilities onboard, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning and water systems. They deal with bulk fuel transfers, and require training in firefighting and first aid, as well as in dealing with the ship's boats and other nautical tasks- especially with cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems, though the specific cargo discharge function remains the responsibility of deck officers and deck workers.Sometimes, they are involved in the design and construction of these complicated systems. New design is mostly included within the naval architecture or ship design. The field is closely related to mechanical engineering, although the modern engineer requires knowledge (and hands on experience) with electrical, electronic, pneumatic, hydraulic, chemistry, control engineering, naval architecture, process engineering, gas turbines and even nuclear technology on certain military vessels.The term marine engineer can also refer to a designer who specializes in the design and building of marine machinery, and occasionally, specialists in naval architecture and shipbuilding.

Merchant Navy at a glance

A Blog site dedicated to the writings of the sea, ships and all those that sail on them? It sounds strange as who knows what the Merchant Navy is or what those at sea actually do all day, those who work in the Industry that is. Isn?t the Merchant Navy something to do with fishing or fighting? What is interesting about that? ?Get a real job?, some would say and others would ask ?and so why haven?t you got a sun tan?. So why would anybody be interested in a web site filled with things that nobody is interested in ? beats me.

Everybody can hold the HELM in calm sea.

"My watch was over at 0400. I turned the Engine room over to my relief, Mr. shen, and made my way out of the engine room , step up the ladder into the passageway leading to the wardroom. I was ready for a hot cup of cocoa and a good night's sleep. I downed the hot chocolate and trudged back down the passageway to my cabin. By this time I was in a state of exhaustion and ready for a long session of sack time. I undressed, and carefully folded my clothes and hopped into the sack with just my shorts and skivvies on to keep me warm. It was quite cold the first few nights at sea and necessitated the wearing of something at bedtime. As we made westerly progress the climate became more salubrious and I was able to sleep quite in Bermudas. As I lay in bed I thought about the hectic day and night we had just experienced, about all the things that had to come together in order for our departure to come about smoothly.

Firing a Boiler.

Set the burners open wide

Do not touch the valves at the side

Keep the pressure on the pump

And up the bally steam will jump

If the smoke is black and thick

Open up the fans a bit

If the smoke is thick and white

To slow the fans will be quite right

who are Seafarer?

Webster's New World Dictionary definesSeafarer (-far'er) n. traveler by sea; esp., a sailorSeafaring (-fer'in) adj.. of or engaged in life at sea -n. 1 the business or profession of a sailor 2 travel by seaTraveling by sea is done on a variety of ships. The word ship in the English language comes from the Old English word scip. A ship is always referred to in the feminine tone. i.e. "she's a beauty". We can attribute this to the British Navy where all ships in UK used to be called 'Her Majesty Ship' (The Queen). So, when we say a ship, we mean her Majesty; thus, 'she'.

Life at sea in the age of sail

Over a period of hundreds of years, seafarers from the age of the early explorers to the time of the Battle of Trafalgar shared many common experiences. Men working at sea had much to endure. Cut off from normal life on shore for months, even years, they had to accept cramped conditions, disease and poor food and pay. Above all, they faced the daily dangers of sea and weather.

Why work at sea?

To see the worldSome people choose to work at sea because it gives them a chance to travel or because they like the way they can get responsible jobs relatively early in their careers. But for others, it may be the only way they can earn a wage to support themselves and their families.

Why Seamen Cannot Save?

It is a common observation that seamen though getting paid much higher than land lubbers do not succeed in saving for their retirement effectively. Seamen, most of them, do not think of their retirement while they are working onboard vessels until very late in the career. I have seen large number of seamen who did not save for the future and there career at sea came to a halt abruptly without sufficient notice, causing them and there families difficulties in managing day to day living.

The Sea / Shore Working Hours:All are the Same!

Working ashore or at sea – difference is not much so far as the working conditions and hours at duty are concerned, especially if one is employed in transportation sector of which shipping is a part.When I look around at people working for different sectors related to merchant shipping ashore, they work long hours without having any regard for the so-called ‘normal’ working hours.

Ghost ships

Historically, the term has been used to refer to reported sightings of apparitions over water that have appeared in the form of maritime sailing ships, often after having previously been known to have sunk, or to derelict vessels found floating with no crew. In fiction, ghost ships have often been vessels crewed by some manner of spectral or non-living beings.

Captain James Cook :The worlds explorer

Captain James Cook FRS RN (27 October 1728 (O.S.) – 14 February 1779) was an English explorer, navigator and cartographer. Ultimately rising to the rank of Captain in the Royal Navy, Cook was the first to map Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean during which he achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia, the European discovery of the Hawaiian Islands, and the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.

Nandkishore Gitte

We've Got Our Personal flotation devices .....Now What?

2008-08-02T10:06:00.011+05:30

I have a personal theory that the need and use of personal flotation devices, or life jackets, was borne of two general evolutionary events in history. These two events largely are unrelated to each other, but until they occurred, human civilization apparently didn't feel that such devices were important or necessary.
The first of the two events was the transition in the construction of seagoing vessels from wood to steel.

In days of yore and wooden ships, if a sailor went into the sea, it most likely was the result of shipwreck. Such a catastrophic occurrence could have been the result of ferocious storms, or from cannonballs launched from a few yards broadside by a pirate or ship of an enemy nation. It even has been written that sea monsters have shattered the hulls of seagoing vessels, and in fact we know that whales and other large sea creatures have created such havoc with ships over the ages. But whatever the cause of the wooden ship breaking up, she always left something of herself to which her sailors could cling. To those who may have given any thought in those days to strapping wooden slats around the bodies of their captains and crews, the idea must surely have been deemed unnecessary because of the life-saving flotsam that would accompany them into the sea. In a manner of speaking, one would have surmised, the sea will be filled with flotation devices in the event of a shipwreck, so why go to the trouble of carrying more flotation into the sea with you.

History records that it wasn't until shipbuilders began turning their attention to more durable hulls made of steel that strangely awkward and odd-looking wooden, strap-on devices began appearing in shipboard lockers. When these ships went down, little would remain bobbing on the surface to support a sailor in distress. It was time now for the sailor to start carrying something that would float into the water with him.
The other historic transition that brought forth an interest in personal flotation devices was the public's interest in recreational boating.
Other than some of the South Pacific islands, where children would paddle out into the surf and dive for decorative shells and turtles -- not for profit, but for fun -- there was very little interest in boating for recreation thoughout most of history. Vessels were seen as useful and necessary for exploration and commercial transportation of goods, but not much of the day was spent longing for an open-bow runabout in which the family could enjoy an outing on a placid sandbar or water-skiing. Driving past a large marina today, it taxes our imagination to recall that recreational boating is a relatively modern phenomena. But it is, and with it came a realization that most recreational boaters, unlike the Tahitian children that grew up alongside the sea and lived half their lives in it, were out of their element on the water. They demanded safety, especially for their children, and new industries were born sewing webbing around strips of kapok.

So, according to my own conclusions, out of large steel ships and a desire for family fun on the water came what we know today as personal flotation devices, or PFDs. Those were the catalysts that brought us first to wooden lathe held around a seaman's torso by knotted fiber, and now to self-actuating Coast Guard approved type V "suspenders." Since those two events awakened our need for PFDs, we've developed new technology, new materials and utilized our refined sense of ingenuity to produce devices that have the potential of saving many lives in our community of recreational boaters.

But there's still one more important chapter to be written in the evolution of PFDs. What will historians write about us when we actually decide to wear these devices, now that we have them? Will they conclude it will be because of a manufacturing breakthrough where PFDs will be no more obtrusive than thin strings hanging around the wearer's neck? (After all, we wouldn't want a PFD to get in the way of a good tan, would we?) Or, will it be because of statistical drowning rates and subsequent government regulation? Will it be because of some catastrophe? We all hope not. Or is it possible that the boating public finally realizes that 600 or so tragedies each year can be averted by simply wearing one of these devices when they venture out onto the water?
Only time will tell.

Nandkishore gitte

Horrifying survival story of 2 Indians onboard 'Fort Longueuil'

2008-08-02T08:48:00.007+05:30

Below are transcripts of the statements made by Thakar Miah and Mohamed Aftab in January 1946.

Statement made by Thakar Miah, Survivor Ex 'Fort Longueuil'

I am Thakar Miah and joined the 'FORT LONGUEUIL' at Barry on the 10th July 1943 as Fireman. The ship left Barry about seven or eight days after and called at Alexandria and Aden. About 9 days after leaving Aden the vessel was torpedoed and this occurred on Monday, 20th September 1943, at about 3p.m. I was due to go on watch at 4 p.m. on that day and was called by Mohamed Aftab just before 3 p.m. I woke Mofiz Ali, Fireman and Fazlur Rahman went to make tea. He had just left when the ship was torpedoed. I put on my lifejacket and went on deck and saw funnel sinking. I put one leg on the ship's railing and jumped into the sea. I sank and when I got to the surface, I saw one raft with Gunner, Mess Room Boy, Galley Boy, Donkeyman and one Fireman.

They called to me and I managed to get to the raft. I then saw that the Donkeyman was Johur Ali and the Fireman Forman Ulla, but I do not know the names of the others on the raft. Mohamed Aftab got to the raft after me. I saw two other rafts. On one raft I saw Chief Mate, 2nd Mate, Carpenter, Apprentice and one Fireman, who I knew as Assab Ulla, but do not know the names of the others. On the other raft there were three people but owing to rain and dark I could not tell who they were. I also saw 4th Engineer sitting on a piece of wood. We called to him, but he could not get to us. The rafts were about 100 to 120 feet apart and we saw them until dark. Next morning I saw only one sail but could not see people. The sail was going away from us.
The ship sank very quickly and nobody went to boat deck. I did not see the Captain or any other members of the crew except those stated.
Three days after the ship sank the food and water finish. The Gunner then said keep the sail up and don't touch it. After about 25 or 26 days the rain came at night. I tasted the water and recovered some strength. I went to the other five with water first but they did not move. I then went to Mohamed Aftab and only one hand moved. I gave him some water and he became stronger and after time he stood up. I tried the five people again but they did not move. I do not know when they died. I was too weak to look at them until the rain came.
Next morning I threw the people into the sea.
Afterwards I catch fish and birds and we both eat them.
The raft drifted to land with a big jungle and next day between about 2 and 3 o'clock I saw a small boy (Malay) and I called to him for food. He ran away and returned with many people. They take us to their house and gave us some rice. About 5 or 6 o'clock the same day the Malays give us to the Japanese. They take us to Japanese Soldier Camp. I asked the Malays what date it was but they could not tell. Later I asked the Japanese and they said 1st February. I do not know the name of the place we landed. I asked the Japanese but they said they would kill me if I asked any more questions. After about 8 days the Japanese take us by motor boat 9 or 10 hours to another place (Chinabang). Here we were questioned by Japanese Magistrate and he said as you two stay in London you are spies. We stayed here 20 or 25 days and were then taken to Kotarajar, Sumatra. After two months in gaol we were taken to Bogitingi and afterwards to gaol. I could not get no news of any other crew of the ship whilst in Japanese hands.
I am sure that the vessel sank on Monday 20th September, 1943 at about 3 p.m. The ship was hit in the middle by the bridge. The Gunner told me it was 20th September but they did not tell me their names. I don not know the names of the Captain, Officers or Engineers, but only knew a few of the British Indians.
Signed by Thakar Miah
In the Presence of R H Johnson 22/1/46

Statement made by Mohamed Aftab, Survivor, Ex 'Fort Longueuil'

I am Mohamed Aftab, Greaser of the 'Fort Longueuil' and sailed in the ship from Barry about 16th July 1943. The ship was torpedoed at 3 p.m. on Monday 20th September 1943. I was on duty in the engine room and the 3rd engineer asked me to get him a cup of tea from the mess-room. I had just reached the mess-room when the ship was torpedoed. I jumped into the sea and about half an hour afterwards I saw a raft with one gunner, one galley boy , one mess-room boy, one donkeyman, Johid Ali and Forman Ullah, Fireman. I do not know the names of the first three and I managed to get on the raft with them and Thakar Miah also got on the raft about the same time.
About 26 days after, the gunner, galley boy, mess-room boy, donkeyman and fireman died. The raft drifted to an Island where there was a big jungle but the Japanese would not tell me the name of the place. They stated that it was the 1st February 1944. After eight days the Japanese take us by motor boat to another place about 12 hours away and eventually we were taken to Sumatra.
Just after the ship was torpedoed and I was on the raft, I saw another raft with four or five people on it, chief mate, 2nd mate, carpenter, apprentice and one fireman, Assab Ullah. The rafts were about one hundred feet apart and remained so until night, but the next morning I could not see the raft.
The torpedo hit the ship in the middle and the vessel sunk in about one minute. I saw the 4th engineer and another man clinging to wood but far away and although we called to them they could not get to the raft owing to the bad weather. Next morning we could not see them. I did not see any other members of the crew after the ship sank.
The ship left Aden for Australia and nine days after leaving Aden the vessel was sunk.
After landing on the island from the raft the Malays carried me to their house and the Japanese come about 5 or 6 at night and take us away. The Japanese then tell me it was the 1st February. I was very weak and cannot remember any more.
Signed by M D Aftab
In the Presence of R H Johnson 23/1/46

Abondon ship Drill

Free fall life raft launching.

After the war, Thakar Miah and Mohamed Aftab were liberated by British troops and taken to Singapore. From Singapore they were flown to Rangoon and then sailed to the U.K. in the Bibby Liner 'Derbyshire' as repatriated prisoners of war, in January 1946.

Nandkishore gitte

Source: Survivors Reports World War - II

Dawn of Women Marine Engineers in India.

2008-07-30T20:40:00.006+05:30

They talk about engine 'decarbs' (overhauls) as comfortably as the latest Bollywood flick. They are equally at ease in both the air-conditioned comfort of their lounges and the furnace-like heat of the engine room. They don't mind the grime and dust or the long, gruelling work hours. They are the women marine engineers who literally rub shoulders with their male colleagues on merchant ships. Close to a decade after the first Indian woman marine engineer graduated from Marine Engineering and Research Institute (MERI), Kolkata, more than 50 such women are today sailing on the high seas.

Braving all odds, these daughters of Sindbad have made the sea their home and the ship their workplace. A sense of adventure and challenge drives them to continue — a fact that Jharkhand girl Jyoti Kumari accepts about her job. "Every day is a challenge," she says. "There is no scope for monotony. Everyday, we go to work thinking, 'what problems are we going to face today?' and how are we going to solve them," says the spunky young girl who has worked on oil tankers only in her four-year-old career. The feeling is common across the board. Yet, it's rather interesting that none of them had any clue about the challenges and adventure they would face when they opted for marine engineering as a career.

Most of the women came to know about the course only when they came across advertisements in newspapers. Says Archana Saxena, one of the first women cadets from Tolani Maritime Institute, Pune, "I hadn't heard about marine engineering till I saw the ad for admission. After reading it, I found out details about a marine engineer's job and ended up liking the profile. I always wanted to do something different from others." A little research, words of assurance from friends, family and the institute help in getting the women on board. Jaipur girl Ruchi Tripathi, who graduated from MERI, Kolkata, faced some opposition from home when she filled up the form along with the IIT application. "They were apprehensive initially. But when they learnt about the course, the prospects and saw the college, they were reassured," says Tripathi. She is presently on vacation at home after completing a six-month contract period with a foreign shipping company.

Most women, who have graduated from either MERI, Tolani or TS Chanakya (this trains students to become navigation officers), are still onboard ships. Says S K Sarkar, director, MERI, Kolkata, "Ever since we opened admissions to women for the first time in '95, eight have taken the course here. Some years, there haven't been any women but that's an exception. I don't think women will stop joining the course." The real test begins once the four-year long rigorous training is over and the cadet joins a ship.

The initial weeks are spent fighting seasickness and adjusting to the working hours. But most importantly, it's getting a foothold in a male-dominated workplace that takes precedence. Most often, there is only one woman on a ship. "The moment you join, all eyes are on you. The big question is: ‘Can she perform?' It becomes imperative then for the woman to prove herself," says Saxena. And in order to establish herself, she ends up putting in extra effort and time. Sharvani Mishra, the other first woman cadet from Tolani, feels that this is true of any other male-dominated profession. "Attitude problems are always there," she says. "But as long as you are professional, hard-working and good at work, everybody respects you." What about problems like sexual harassment and discrimination at the workplace? "We are more safe on the ship than on land" is a common refrain among women shippies. Moreover, women are treated as equals and expected to perform the same tasks as men do. "If there is a breakdown in the middle of the night, then you are expected to come to work, even if you have gone to sleep just two hours back after completing your shift," says Kumari.

After all, shipping is a business and the owner is paying huge money for the ship to be in good shape. "So whether it's a man or woman, the job has to be done," reasons Brijendar K Saxena, director, Tolani Maritime Institute. Most ships these days are new and fully automated. As a result, breakdowns and engine-room emergencies are not too common. But working on an old ship can be full of challenges. Recalls Mishra, "On one of my earlier trips, I was on a 15 to 20 year-old ship. It was quite a terrible time. I had to be up most nights to ensure that the ship was in running shape." In fact, life on an oil tanker can be more hectic than on a bulk carrier (ships that carry dry cargo like iron ore and grains in bulk). But these women don't seem to mind it. "In the end, it's just a matter of 4-5 months. Most companies now offer shorter contracts unlike in the past when one was at sea for nine months at a stretch," says Ankita Srivastava, an employee of a foreign shipping company. Yet, being the only woman on ship can get difficult at times. "I miss girl talk and the fact that there is nobody to share my emotions and innermost thoughts," says Kumari. Moreover, being away from family, especially children, for months at a stretch can be emotionally stressful. But most women shippies are quite pragmatic about it. "These days most people work long hours, thus staying away from home for a longer period. And by the end of the day, one is too tired to even have a decent conversation with the family.

At least, when we are on the ship, our focus is work and when we are home for few months, we are able to spend all our time with the family," argues Saxena. This mother of a one-year-old will be joining work this month after a break of two years. All the toil, sweat and bouts of loneliness are compensated by visits to exotic places and six-figure salaries. "Our travel is completely free and we end up saving all our salary. What more can we ask?" queries Tripathi. Travelling to the pyramids, getting a peek of the Great Barrier Reef or watching dolphins swim along with the ship are some unusual perks of a job. And at the end of the day, as the world sleeps, the uppermost thought on a woman marine engineer's mind is the smooth running of the ship.

ILO publication : Women Seafarers. Global employment policies and practices

Download Abstract.

This landmark book is the first to focus on contemporary women seafarers at a global level. It addresses a host of issues surrounding the working conditions and welfare of women, from both developed and developing countries, employed aboard the world’s merchant and passenger ships. Drawing on extensive research commissioned by the ILO, the book considers women’s participation levels in the industry, and examines policies concerning their recruitment, training, maternity and employment rights, and other aspects of work and life at sea. It also offers first-hand accounts from women seafarers describing how they have dealt with discrimination, sexual harassment, parental disapproval and an array of other difficulties.Women’s employment in the industry has multiple dimensions, and this book provides the historical background and presents recent findings on female participation rates. The study examines the practices and policies of national and international regulatory agencies, employers, trade unions, and maritime education institutions. A series of recommendations that may further help the integration of women into shipboard communities is included.

KEY FEATURES:

First book of its kind to focus on women seafarers at a global level

Contains useful appendices for cross-referencing with the text

Covers women’s employment in both developing and developed countries

Offers details of actual experiences of women seafarers

Focuses on policies regarding recruitment, training, maternity leave .

Nandkishore Gitte

See-Saw between Ship and Shore.

2008-07-22T19:45:00.004+05:30

Introduction

Seafaring work patterns involve periods of leave and seatime and the associated transition
periods as the seafarer moves from one situation to the other. This post explores
seafarers’ and their partner’s experiences of the different aspects of the work cycle. It
begins by exploring the separation between shipboard and home life and moves on to
consider specific periods within the work cycle, highlighting issues and problems identified
by the seafaring couples.

Two worlds, two lives?

Shipboard and home lives offer distinct contrasts. Not only are the very conditions of
existence considerably dissimilar but also there are few opportunities for these two domains
to meet and overlap. Seafarers’ families often have little opportunity to visit the workplace
and be involved in workplace social events as might be more commonplace in shore-based
occupations. If relationships are established with colleagues, such shipboard relationships
rarely extend into leave time due to geographical separations and conflicting leave periods.
Thus it is not unusual for seafarers’ partners and their shipboard colleagues to never meet.
For seafarers on long deep-sea voyages, (and without access to email), contact with home
may be extremely limited for considerable periods. These factors all contribute to a
separation of the domains of work and home. For the seafarers in this study, this separation
was sufficient for seafarers to refer to having ‘two lives’, or ‘two selves’ or existing in ‘two
worlds’, as the following quotes illustrate:

You know it is, you sort of split your life in two. (laughs) Well perhaps I phrased that
badly (laughs), yeah, there were two sides to your life really. (Senior Officer)

I always found it was very much a two life existence, wouldn’t go so far as saying it
was Dr. Jeckyll, Mr.Hyde exactly, but it’s very different. And I always found in recent
years that once you were back at home, you felt that you were always at home, and as
soon as you got to the ship it’s like you were always on the ship. There’s no
comparison between the two. (Senior Officer)

I’ve always said to [my wife] for me to survive in my industry I have to be two people.
This is the good guy, that’s the bad guy right. And then when I go away I sort of...how
can you say...I’m back in work mode right. [Ö]. And this other guy he’s less tolerant of
people than what he is with his own family. Then in the reverse sector when I come
back I try to forget this guy and bring the other guy back up. So basically I think I am
two people. (Senior Officer)

Yes I think for me patterns of behaviour were place associated. So being at home had
its pattern of behaviour and in completely different surroundings being at sea had its
pattern of behaviour. I suspect it was more different for [my wife] because she was in
the same surroundings with different patterns of behaviour. (Senior Officer)

Whilst physically located in the same place, without the obvious contrast of ship and shore,
women also experienced considerable contrasts in their lives dependent on the point in their
partner’s work cycle. Accommodating a partner in day-to-day existence often necessitated
significant adjustments, experienced in changes in freedoms and responsibility and the
transition from being ‘temporarily single’ (and possibly acting as a ‘single parent’) to being
part of a couple again. As two wives explained:

It’s like living two lives. One life obviously with him away and one with him at home.
(Wife of Senior Officer)

Sometimes I like him to be away because I think I’ve got used to being on my own and
my husband is not around and I’ve got used to it. When he comes home I feel that we
have to adjust to one another and adjust to being together again. Because sometimes if
you have got used to being without your husband being around by the time he comes
home I have to adjust to his presence again. It’s difficult, you have to make adjustments
all the time. (Wife of Senior Officer)

Transitions

It might be reasonable to assume that the period of separation was difficult for couples and
that homecomings are indeed joyous and happy events. However reflecting the findings of
earlier studies, the data from this research suggest that it is the periods of transition between
these two existences, whether from the ship to the home or from home to ship that were
experienced as difficult by the couples. Such transition periods were characterised by bothseafarers and their partners as tension laden. This is not to say that both parties did not
eagerly anticipate the seafarer’s return. Indeed some described the pleasure associated with
the reunions as one of the positive aspects of the job. As seafarers and partners commented:
Coming home to me, it’s, it’s just like Christmas. (Senior Officer)

Like as if you’re on your first date again and you’ve got to meet someone all over
again, you know sort of butterflies in the stomach and can’t wait to sort of see each
other or again it’s that sort of, that’s the nicest part I think is going to meet him at the
airport or pick him up from somewhere. (Wife of Senior Officer)

Oh I get all excited like an idiot. I do I get all excited I do I think ‘oh I’m gonna clean
the house right through and then I won’t have to do anything for a good couple of
weeks, you know, ‘we can kind of enjoy ourselves together’ you know. So it’s silly
really after all those, it’s not silly I think it’s nice in some ways isn’t it yeah. (Wife of
Senior Officer)
However, whilst return home was much anticipated by both partners it was equally a time
which could be fraught with tensions each person adjusted to the new situation.

Stress and unwinding

Problems in the transition period between ship and shore were attributed to a number of
different factors. Increased workloads have been identified as a cause of stress within the
industry (Parker et al., 1997). Changes in the industry such as increased automation,
decreased crewing levels, increased work load and decreased job security have put pressure
on seafarers to put in extra hours to keep their jobs (Collins, et al., 2000). Such pressures
have resulted in increased levels of stress and fatigue (NUMAST, 1995). These increased
hours of work and occupational pressures appeared to expand beyond the confines of the
ship to impact on home life. One of the most common problems during this transition
period identified by seafarers related to the stress associated with their job and the problems
they had ‘switching off’ when they returned home from a tour of duty. Officers in this
study attributed increased work-related stress to reduced crewing levels and new regulatory
systems which involved considerable amounts of paperwork, both of which led to longer
working hours and more pressure whilst in the work environment. These problems were
also recognised by seafarers’ wives who found that it took their partners some time to

unwind after the trip and that they were often physically exhausted. As two wives
explained:

Yeah it normally takes about a week cos he’s normally really het up about being at
work, and he’s just starting to come down after that. […] It’s usually a week of up and
downs, you know, and then its okay. (Wife of Junior Officer)

You know if he’s happy I’m happy too, sometimes he’s been home and perhaps there’s
a lot going on and he’s going back to a certain situation he hasn’t been himself all the
way through his leave and I know because it’s this job is on his mind or he’s got to go
back to sort out this and sort out that. (Wife of Senior Officer)

Adjusting sleeping patterns

Shipboard temporal schedules and routines often differ dramatically to those followed at
home. Seafarers’ working hours are often organised by shiftwork which can cause
problems with sleep patterns and indeed the problem of fatigue on board is currently the
subject of a large research investigation (Collins. et al., 2000) and has been linked to high
rates of seafarer suicide (Telegraph, 1999). Shiftwork, sleep loss and disruption can lead to
a build up of fatigue (Finkelman, 1994). Such working conditions aboard ship could
manifest themselves as excessive tiredness upon the seafarer’s return home. As one seafarer
noted:

Yeah, no, it’s not good, I don’t think, so you don’t really notice it until you come home
and then your sort of, the first thing you notice is, not bad headaches, but you know
just strain cos you’re so tired -so it does a week or two - I get a bit stressed -, to calm
down. (Junior Officer)

Interestingly, despite the fatigue experienced by seafarers, sleeping problems were also
frequently mentioned as an issue when the seafarer returned home from a tour of duty.
These problems were attributed to shipboard routines such as irregular watch keeping hours
or the need to sleep lightly to listen for alarms. The effects of these work conditions could
be compounded by the presence of jet-lag and the simple factor of the unfamiliar presence
of another person in bed. The following quotes illustrate the difficulties seafarers faced in
readjusting their sleep patterns during their leave periods:

Yeah, I can never have a full night sleep, I never have a full night sleep, on and off
continuously. When you’re used to work, living on, see the type of ships I’m on are
small anyway yeah. So you hear every noises slight engine change noise anything like
that you hear it. And the slightest noise wakes me up, I hear the baby wake up long
before [my wife] ever does. It’s just you get tuned in subconsciously to these sort of
things and I never have a full night. (Senior Officer)

Yes, physically you know, getting into sleeping patterns again, that’s the awkward
thing, you’re used to being up all hours and so you kind of have to readapt to a full
night’s sleep every night. (Senior Officer)

The worst thing is jet lag to be honest with you, especially since I’m working mainly in
the far east, it’s an 8 hour difference and I come over and, now it’s 8 hours on it would
be say 12 o’clock here I’ll be knocking off I’ll be waking up at 2 in the morning
because you know it’s my waking up time. And that takes about 3 or 4 days at least.
(Senior Officer)

These sleeping problems also effected women in the study and a number commented on
their husband’s difficulties adjusting temporally and the problems they experienced in
marrying their own, and their partner’s temporal habits and routines.

Everything ‘ ship-shape’ ?

Other problems associated with the seafarers’ return related to the contrast between ship
and home life. Several women described their anxieties as they prepared for their
husband’s return. Concerns related to their perceptions of their husband’s desire to return
home to a tidy house which mirrored the high standards of tidiness and order they had
become accustomed to whilst aboard ship. This issue could be particularly acute for the
households with children: both seafarers and their partners talked about the seafarer’s
difficulties accepting the disorder created by children:

I get more regimented than anything. I get into a ship routine and then I come and I’ve
got to get out of it then.
What kind of things do you feel regimented about?
I tidy everything up. [My wife’s] not as tidy as me, I enjoy doing that and it drives me
mad when she doesn’t leave it tidy. (Senior Officer).

My wife is ‘[he’s] coming home’, scrubbing everything and I’ll be through cupboards
and I’ll have pans out and I’ll say ‘Right I want that that way’ you know and ‘I want
that cleaned that way’. Quite a nutter really. (Junior Officer)

Indeed this could be such an issue that it caused rows and conflict between couples. As one
seafarer explained:

[We row about] Kids not clearing away their shoes, you know, mostly being fussy I
suppose, I’m a bit … I suppose being at sea in that sense you get to value physically
space and things, I can’t stand clutter and I’m always …. my wife’s more of a hoarder,
and I think ‘Christ we can chuck that, and that’s untidy!’ …. (Senior Officer)

Problems could increase as seafarers rose in rank and reached the status of Chief Engineer
or Captain. Women talked about husband’s bringing their ship-board status into the home,
making them feel like ‘junior officers’. Women who had successfully been managing the
household, (from paying bills, to chauffeuring children and managing DIY), reported
experiencing a tension between their husband’s need for them to be independent and
capable in their absence and then become dependent and defer responsibility to them upon
their return home (see also section on Role Displacement). As wives explained:

[He’s] used to running the ship and his crew, now we’re at home ‘yes sir’ ‘yes sir’. But
it doesn’t work like that, that can cause problems. So it caused a few rows that did.
Um, and I’m sure that must happened in lots of households. […] Here am I running
everything and all of a sudden I’m like junior officer you see. (Wife of Senior Officer)

when I’m on my own I’m the boss and when [my husband] comes home being a ship’s
master he’s used to being the boss I take second place. (Wife of Senior Officer)

It’s just like he doesn’t have to do it while he’s away but you’re not good enough when
they’re home then you know and they sort of take the responsibility away from you so.
So yeah it is a big difference, I suppose you have to change personality as well you
know from when they’re away to when they’re home. (Wife of Senior Officer)

These periods of adjustment were perhaps particularly significant for those seafarers who
worked on relatively short rotas. Conflicts associated with the transition could absorb a
significant proportion of the beginning of the leave and were often combined with a similar periods towards the end of the leave when both parties began to adjust to the realities of the
seafarer leaving home again. As two wives explained:

After 2 weeks you’re thinking ‘oh I’ve only got 2 weeks to go and he’s going back
again’, so you don’t have that relaxation period in between where you sort of sit back
and think, ‘yeah well you got another couple of weeks’ and it’s like the clock. And then
you get edgy with each other then, you start getting ratty you know, little arguments
will start cause we’re both on edge, thinking ‘oh only a couple of weeks and then he’s
going back again you know’. And it spoils the leave then because no sooner you sort
of keep winding down and relaxing then he’s thinking about going back again then so
it goes from one extreme back to the other, so your constantly sort of thinking about
him going off again and go back away. (Wife of Senior Officer)

I found it horrendous, he would come home so tired absolutely zonked out cause he
was still a second mate and he’d come home absolutely shattered took him days and
days to get over it and then half way through he would come alive and then be worried
about going back to work the fourth week. So you’d have always 2 out of the 4 weeks
that were useless. (Wife of Senior Officer)

Going back to sea

As the return home was problematic so too was the return to work also characterised by
stress and unease. The period directly prior to departure could result in seafarers becoming
emotionally withdrawn or anxious about completing practical tasks before their return to
the ship. Immediate partings could be highly emotionally charged and several couples
reported opting for partings at home rather than at the airport or railway station in order to
minimise the emotional trauma for themselves and their children. Two women explained
how they attempted to minimise the distress associated with their husbands’ departures:

If he goes away and he’s got to go by plane we never go to say ‘bye’ he always goes in
a taxi because they[the children] just get too distressed, they just cry and it’s not fair
on them to get them so upset and then he gets upset. So we don’t do things like that he
just goes in a taxi and it’s easier then. (Wife of Senior Officer)

I think the best way we’ve found, especially when the children were younger was if he
hired a car and drove to the airport because if I drive him to the airport and that was -

oh very traumatic. And then it was putting him on the train but that was bad enough, I
don’t know trains are awful sad when you’re waving goodbye to people. But I found
then when he hired the car and drove himself to the airport we’d just say ‘cheerio’ just
going down the car on a road like if he was just going to the shop or going somewhere,
it wasn’t so traumatic. (Wife of Senior Officer)

Women talked about the problems adjusting to an empty and quiet house after their
partner’s departure. Strategies to cope with this included staying with extended family
members, and use of the television or radio as a means of ‘company’. In this aspect,
women with children appeared to fare better than their childless contemporaries as they
continued to have company within the home and not the dramatic contrast of an empty
house (see section on Children). One recently married women talked about her feelings
after her husband had first returned back to sea:

It probably doesn’t really hit you […] until you come back in the evening, when you’ve
come home for the last 3 months, the lights have been on there’s been a TV on, the
kettle’s been on you know there’s hustle and bustle. And I always know that whenever
I come back into the house the first thing I do is put on the TV for background noise
just to have something there. And I’ve got, especially in the winter, just timers on so it
looks a bit homely when you come in, instead of just complete darkness. (Wife of
Junior Officer)

Additional stressors

Problems could be amplified where there was a degree of uncertainty as to the exact date of
departure and indeed arrival home. Dates could be so unreliable that one seafarer and his
wife adopted the strategy of him informing her of his return date only when he had left the
ship and was safely on dry land. Some women avoided the unnecessary distress delayed
arrivals caused to their children by not informing them of their father’s imminent arrival and
thus minimising the risk of disappointment. For partners and families, and indeed seafarers,
who were awaiting the end of their trip with some anticipation and longing, such
postponements could have significant emotional consequences. One woman recalled her
experience of waiting for her husband to return home:

Towards the end of the trip, now this time you know they wouldn’t let him off the ship,
you know it was - it kept on being ‘next week’, ‘next week’. I said ‘if you’re not home
by Friday I’m going to the doctors and I’m going to scream and scream and scream
and cry and cry and cry, I can cope until Friday, but another day - I can’t cope another
day with it all’ (Wife of Junior Officer)

‘Never-ending’ voyages

Transition periods were uniformly mentioned as the most difficult period. However some
women also reported the middle period of the tour of duty to be a difficult time where they
felt overwhelmed by the duration of their partner’s absence. These women all had in
common the fact that their partners did longer tours of duty (3 months or more). As one
wife explained how the time she found most difficult was:

About in the middle of the trip, and yet I think you just think it’s been such a long slog
to the middle and then you think ‘oh I’ve got all that time to do again’, you know it just
seems never ending. So that, I’d say that was the worse part, apart from the first
couple of weeks and then the second, the last 2 months of a 4 month trip they don’t,
none of it flies really, I couldn’t say that flies or that drags, it all drags. Um but you’re
on countdown, crossing the days off the calendar. (Wife of Junior Officer)

Nandkishore Gitte

source: Lost at Sea and Lost at Home: the Predicament of Seafaring Families by Michelle Thomas

IMO sets deadlines for installation of ECDIS

2008-07-06T16:58:00.005+05:30

THE mandatory use of electronic chart display and information systems on board ships came a step closer to being compulsory with this week’s International Maritime Organization NAV sub-committee agreeing a set of deadlines for installation. These include a comprehensive phase in schedule that some bodies were seeking. For new build passenger ships of 500 gt and above and tankers of 3,000 gt and over, ECDIS becomes compulsory from July 1, 2012, and for other newbuilding vessels at dates up to 2014. For existing vessels the phase in period is from 2014-2018, depending on type and size, although there is an exemption clause for vessels within two years of their end of life.

Reports are that the ECDIS recommendation for mandatory carriage has none of the square brackets, the notorious stumbling blocks that can lead to debate and changes to text within the IMO, which is an indication that MSC, which meets in November, is likely to agree to the recommendations without too much trouble. ECDIS is considered a crucial element in the development of maritime safety and a key part of the growth of e-navigation. International Chamber of Shipping marine director Peter Hinchliffe welcomed the decision at the NAV sub committee. “We sought the assurance from the International Hydrographic Organization that there would be enough coverage to meet the time scale discussed, which we received,” he said. “We feel that provided that the charts are delivered there is not a problem and we have to underline that ECDIS does make a contribution to safe navigation.” Many newbuildings are already being built with ECDIS installed, as ship owners prepare for what they see as an inevitable decision from the IMO.

There are a number of systems approved by the International Electrotechnical Commission as meeting the IMO standards, and commentators have said that current paper and Rasder charts are easily converted to be used for ECDIS purposes. “In general it is not necessary to do a new survey to create an electronic navigation chart, old paper chart data can be used in most instances,” said Royal Institute of Navigation technical committee chairman Andy Norris. However, he said there may be some issues with navigating officers becoming proficient in the use of ECDIS and then occasionally having to work with only paper charts during the transition phase up to 2018. The NAV committee is also reported to have made good headway in shaping the future strategy and implementation plan of e-navigation. This requires an understanding of the systems architecture to be developed by 2010 and an implementation plan developed by 2012. The idea of e-navigation is that it connects existing systems together to improve the flow of communications between ship and shore to provide safer navigation using the latest electronic aids within vessel traffic management tools and the shipboard systems such as ECDIS, GPS and AIS.

OFFICER SHORTAGE DRIVES INITIATIVE FOR QUALITY

2008-07-05T22:35:00.005+05:30

But the current shortage of officers being experienced by the shipping industry is forcing the Philippines to take an initiative in search of quality if it wants to retain its leading position in the maritime labour market. To achieve this goal the industry has to dig down to the root cause of the problem, which is education. The recent ISF-Bimco study estimated that there is a significant shortage of 10,000 officers. Though the Philippines has a surplus of ratings and junior officers, the shortage of senior officers will act as an incentive for promotion. The question today is how the industry can turn up the surplus of ratings and junior officers to higher ranks, Adonis Donato, the president of Masters and Mates Association of the Philippines, told a recent industry forum. Because of the situation, Donato says some ship management firms have been forced to turn down crew management offers because they cannot provide the senior officers needed
to man new tonnage. “An opportunity lost,” he lamented, revealing that some managers
“have been feeling the pinch” as a consequence. It is estimated that 70,000 Filipino merchant
marine officers are working in deck and engine positions onboard various foreign flagged vessels. With a total deployment of 248,055 seafarers last year, the number of officers has still to catch up with ratings to fill the demand.

Some of the large fleet foreign owners relying on Filipino crewmen include the Japanese and Europeans like the Greeks, Norwegians, Danish, Dutch and Germans. Among them the Japanese, who started the `mixed crewing’ concept in the late 1980s, have remained loyal to employing Filipinos. There are now about 22,000 to 25,000 Filipino seafarers working onboard Japanese controlled vessels. The Norwegians, who have shifted their manning strategy by recruiting East European crews over the last three to four years, currently employ 16,000
Filipino officers and ratings from a previous high of 25,000.

The Danish shipowners fleet under the DIS Register has increased preference for
Filipinos, and is said to have grown to 14,000 from a level of 9,000 three or four years ago.
The Dutch shipowners have shown favour for employing Filipino crew by supporting the
state-run Palompon Institute of Technology through the supply of training equipment
and instructional materials for the school cadets. Dutch shipowners and operators
have also applied to set up a training centre in the Philippines as part of their goal to
take more Filipino officers aboard their fleet.

In terms of fleet, the country’s crewing industry considers Greek shipowners as the biggest employer of Filipino seafarers with an estimate of about 80,000 officers and ratings working
on various types of ships. German owners are slowly taking in Filipino crew members with
a current estimate of about 10,000. The Philippines Register, which is in the process of promotion and expansion to attract more shipowners and managers, is another area that awaits an opportunity in the employment of Filipino seafarers. Under a draft presidential executive order, foreign-owned vessels represented by a ship management company duly accredited by the shipping body Marina, can fly the Philippine flag provided they adhere to the leading requisite that the ships are fully crewed by Filipinos. With 168 ships in its register mostly on
bareboat charter arrangement, Marina hopes the proposed amendments will attract more
foreign vessels and provide employment to Filipinos. Crew managers have suggested
the integration of a package of reforms to the Register such as crew claims, wage cost and competency.

The robust growth in shipbuilding, particularly specialised carriers, has provided a sudden
surge of jobs on offer and renewed prospect for the manning industry. Ship management and crewing agencies are starting to jointly work on a campaign to Encourage junior officers to take review classes and then take their licensure examinations for higher positions onboard.
They are also encouraging shipping companies to give opportunities to thousands of officers
to move up or expand the source of engine officers. A rich alternative source of candidates for the maritime industry is the electrical and mechanical engineering graduates, which the state-run Maritime Training Council has allowed to cross over profession. It can be done by three to five months classroom study and a six month closely supervised onboard apprenticeship programme.

Nandkishore Gitte.

source: ECDRS today

Hundred Years of SOS : At a glance.

2008-07-04T10:31:00.012+05:30

S.O.S

‘SOS’, the distress signal that saved thousands of lives, has turned 100 on (July 1). ‘SOS’, which is the commonly used description for the international morse code distress signal containing three dots, three dashes and three more dots, was first adopted by the German government in radio regulations on April 1, 1905. But, it became the worldwide standard when it was included in the second International Radiographic Convention which was signed on November 3, 1906, and became effective from July 1, 1908.

S.O.S Music album By Cherry. (you will Love it).

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In the past century, ‘SOS’ has become a firm part of popular culture used in everything from DIY programme titles to Abba hits, British newspaper ‘The Times’ reported. But, it may be mentioned here that the call actually became famous when one of the radio operators of the ill-fated ‘Titanic’ had supposedly said to his colleague: “Send SOS”. The tragedy revealed just how vital a universal system was.

After the Titanic collision in April 1912, the ship’s radio operators sent out both the old CQD and the new ‘SOS’ signals, but some ships in the area ignored both, thinking that they were having a party. They soon learnt otherwise, as international headlines told how Jack Phillips, Titanic’s first radio operator, and 1,500 others had been lost along with the “unsinkable” ship.

The new SOS distress signal was rarely ignored after that. Of course, technology has moved on dramatically since 1908 and only very occasionally are the telltale dots and dashes that have saved countless lives employed today. So, it seems ‘SOS’ is safe for another century too!

Read at : http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/science/article4244924.ece

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SOS: not Save Our Souls, Sailors, Ships or Skins.

It is the most meaningful “acronym” in the English language, despite meaning nothing. It does not stand for Save Our Souls, Stop Other Signals, Survivors On Ship, Sure Of Sinking, Send Out Succour, Save Our Sailors/Ship/Skins or any other such variant. It certainly does not stand, as one theory claims, for Spasiti Ot Smerti (the Russian for “save from death”).
SOS is simply the shortest, simplest three-letter arrangement in Morse code: three dots, three dashes and three more dots. The signal was deliberately chosen for its meaninglessness since it had to be universally recognised and not subject to language variations.
Like everything to do with maritime regulation, distress signalling was subject to intense international rivalry – while the British thought it sounded like a German derivation and the French would never accept something in English, the Italians and Americans had their own variations. But SOS was ideal, being short, symmetrical, memorable, inoffensive and without meaning in any language (except Greek: sos, by chance, is the inner stem of the verb “to save”.)
Despite (or perhaps because) it does not stand for anything in particular, SOS has become deeply embedded in our culture as a distinct word, complete with its own mythology and romance.

In the long history of modern rescue SOS has been spelled out on beaches with rocks, flashed with a torch and stamped into snow. It has also been deployed to protect many things besides ships – the Sumatran Orangutan Society, Support Our Soldiers, Sustainable Open Space and so on – but it has also become the accepted distress signal for a broken heart.
Abba sang about it (“So when you’re near me, darling can’t you hear me, SOS.”), as did the Police in Message in a Bottle (“I’ll send an SOS to the world.”). Rihanna continued this rich tradition with her 2006 hit, SOS (Rescue Me), which begins: “Lalala lalala la la lala la Ohhh, You know . . . I never felt like this before.”
After a century, SOS has come full circle: it started off as completely meaningless and, in some circumstances, it still is.

S.O.S Music Video by (Rehana)

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Early developments

With the development of radio communication in the early 1890s, seagoing vessels had already adopted a wide variety of visual and audio distress signals, using such things as semaphore flags, signal flares, bells, and foghorns. Radio—which initially was called "wireless telegraphy"—at first employed Morse code, the dit-and-dah system originally developed for landline telegraphy. With the introduction of shipboard Radio installations, there was a need for standardized communication, but cooperation was somewhat limited by national differences and rivalries between competing radio companies.

The first International Radiotelegraphic Conference was held in Berlin, Germany in 1903. At the time, Captain Quintino Bonomo, an Italian representative, discussed the need for common operating procedures, including the suggestion that "ships in distress... should send the signal SSS DDD at intervals of a few minutes", according to "The Wireless Telegraph Conference", in the November 27, 1903, issue of The Electrician. However, procedural questions were beyond the scope of the 1903 Conference. Although Article IV of the Conference's Final Protocol, signed August 13, 1903, stated that "Wireless telegraph stations should, unless practically impossible, give priority to calls for help received from ships at sea," no standard signal was adopted at the time.

Because of the absence of international regulations, each ship was left to develop its own practices. For example in 1905 the crew of a sinking lightship off Nantucket transmitted the word "HELP" to call for rescue. Perhaps the first international radio distress call adopted was "CQD" ( — · — · — — · — — · · ) which was announced on January 7, 1904 by "Circular 57" of the Marconi International Marine Communication Company, and which became effective for Marconi installations beginning February 1, 1904. Another suggestion appeared in the 1906 edition of S. S. Robison's "Manual of Wireless Telegraphy for the Use of Naval Electricians," published for use by the United States Navy. This stated that the standard visual flag signals, known as the International Code of Signals, would likely also be adopted for radio use. Thus, the flag signal "NC" ( — · — · — · ), which stood for "In distress; want immediate assistance", would also likely become the radio distress call or a cry for help.

History

SOS was developed from the general German radio call "SOE", with the 3 dits of a "S" easier to hear in under noisy conditions than the one dit of an "E". Also, the otherwise meaningless string of letters was selected because it is easily recognizable and can be sent rapidly. Comparing SOS (di-di-di-dah-dah-dah-di-di-dit) with the older CQD (dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-di-dah dah-di-dit) (— · — · / — — · — / — · ·) it is obvious how much simpler the new code was. Also, it would not be mistaken for CQ, the radio code for "calling anyone" used in casual circumstances.
In 1906, at the second International Radiotelegraphic Convention in Berlin, an extensive collection of Service Regulations were developed to supplement the main agreement, which was signed on November 3, 1906, becoming effective on July 1, 1908. Article XVI of the regulations adopted Germany's Notzeichen distress signal as the international standard, reading: "Ships in distress shall use the following signal: · · · — — — · · · repeated at brief intervals". The first ship to transmit an SOS distress call appears to have been the Cunard liner Slavonia on June 10, 1909, according to "Notable Achievements of Wireless" in the September, 1910 Modern Electrics. However, there was some resistance among the Marconi operators to the adoption of the new signal, and, as late as the April, 1912 sinking of the RMS Titanic, the ship's Marconi operators intermixed CQD and SOS distress calls. However, in the interests of consistency and public safety, the use of CQD appears to have died out after this point.

In both the April 1, 1905 German law, and the 1906 International regulations, the distress signal was specified as a continuous Morse code sequence of three-dits/three-dahs/three-dits, with no mention of any alphabetic equivalents. However, in International Morse, three dits comprise the letter S, and three dahs the letter O. It therefore soon became common to refer to the distress signal as "SOS." An early report on "The International Radio-Telegraphic Convention" in the January 12, 1907 Electrical World stated that "Vessels in distress use the special signal, SOS, repeated at short intervals." (In American Morse code, which was used by many coastal ships in the United States through the first part of the twentieth century, three dahs stood for the numeral "5", so in a few cases the distress signal was informally referred to as "S5S").
In contrast to CQD, which was sent as three separate letters with spaces between each letter, the SOS distress call has always been transmitted as a continuous sequence of dits-and-dahs, and not as individual letters. There was no problem as long as operators were aware that "SOS" was technically just a convenient way for remembering the proper sequence of the distress signal's total of nine dits and dahs. In later years, the number of special Morse symbols increased. In order to designate the proper sequence of dits-and-dahs for a long special symbol, the standard practice is to list alphabetic characters which contain the same dits-and-dahs in the same order, with a bar atop the character sequence to indicate that there should not be any internal spaces in the transmission. Thus, under the modern notation, the distress signal becomes SOS. (In International Morse, VTB, IJS and SMB, among others, would also correctly translate into the · · · — — — · · · distress call sequence, but traditionally only SOS is used).
SOS has also sometimes been used as a visual distress signal, consisting of three-short/three-long/three-short light flashes, or with "SOS" spelled out in individual letters, for example, stamped in a snowbank or formed out of logs on a beach. The fact that SOS can be read right side up as well as upside down became important for visual recognition if viewed from above

Later developments:

The use of the SOS signal was first introduced in Germany as part of a set of national radio regulations, effective April 1, 1905. These regulations introduced three new Morse code sequences, including the SOS distress signal:
Ruhezeichen ("Cease-sending signal"), consisting of six dahs ( — — — — — — ), sent by shore stations to tell other local stations to stop transmitting.
Suchzeichen ("Quest signal"), composed of three-dits/three dahs/one-dit, all run together (· · · — — — · ), used by ships to get the attention of shore stations.
Notzeichen ("Distress signal"), consisting of three-dits/three-dahs/three-dits (· · · — — — · · · ), also in a continuous sequence, "to be repeated by a ship in distress until all other stations have stopped working".
SOS was developed from the general German radio call "SOE", with the 3 dits of a "S" easier to hear in under noisy conditions than the one dit of an "E". Also, the otherwise meaningless string of letters was selected because it is easily recognizable and can be sent rapidly. Comparing SOS (di-di-di-dah-dah-dah-di-di-dit) with the older CQD (dah-di-dah-dit dah-dah-di-dah dah-di-dit) (— · — · / — — · — / — · ·) it is obvious how much simpler the new code was. Also, it would not be mistaken for CQ, the radio code for "calling anyone" used in casual circumstances.
In 1906, at the second International Radiotelegraphic Convention in Berlin, an extensive collection of Service Regulations were developed to supplement the main agreement, which was signed on November 3, 1906, becoming effective on July 1, 1908. Article XVI of the regulations adopted Germany's Notzeichen distress signal as the international standard, reading: "Ships in distress shall use the following signal: · · · — — — · · · repeated at brief intervals". The first ship to transmit an SOS distress call appears to have been the Cunard liner Slavonia on June 10, 1909, according to "Notable Achievements of Wireless" in the September, 1910 Modern Electrics. However, there was some resistance among the Marconi operators to the adoption of the new signal, and, as late as the April, 1912 sinking of the RMS Titanic, the ship's Marconi operators intermixed CQD and SOS distress calls. However, in the interests of consistency and public safety, the use of CQD appears to have died out after this point.
In both the April 1, 1905 German law, and the 1906 International regulations, the distress signal was specified as a continuous Morse code sequence of three-dits/three-dahs/three-dits, with no mention of any alphabetic equivalents. However, in International Morse, three dits comprise the letter S, and three dahs the letter O. It therefore soon became common to refer to the distress signal as "SOS." An early report on "The International Radio-Telegraphic Convention" in the January 12, 1907 Electrical World stated that "Vessels in distress use the special signal, SOS, repeated at short intervals." (In American Morse code, which was used by many coastal ships in the United States through the first part of the twentieth century, three dahs stood for the numeral "5", so in a few cases the distress signal was informally referred to as "S5S").
In contrast to CQD, which was sent as three separate letters with spaces between each letter, the SOS distress call has always been transmitted as a continuous sequence of dits-and-dahs, and not as individual letters. There was no problem as long as operators were aware that "SOS" was technically just a convenient way for remembering the proper sequence of the distress signal's total of nine dits and dahs. In later years, the number of special Morse symbols increased. In order to designate the proper sequence of dits-and-dahs for a long special symbol, the standard practice is to list alphabetic characters which contain the same dits-and-dahs in the same order, with a bar atop the character sequence to indicate that there should not be any internal spaces in the transmission. Thus, under the modern notation, the distress signal becomes SOS. (In International Morse, VTB, IJS and SMB, among others, would also correctly translate into the · · · — — — · · · distress call sequence, but traditionally only SOS is used).
SOS has also sometimes been used as a visual distress signal, consisting of three-short/three-long/three-short light flashes, or with "SOS" spelled out in individual letters, for example, stamped in a s

nowbank or formed out of logs on a beach. The fact that SOS can be read right side up as well as upside down became important for visual recognition if viewed from above.

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Other bloggers got some intresting stuff too at.

sos-morse-code-maritime-distress-call-is-century-old.

how-to-memorize-your-morse-code.

MAN B&W Released new ME-B Series Engine in Market.

2008-06-29T20:19:00.012+05:30

PRINCIPAL DATA

MAN B&W S46 ME-B

Bore mm 460

Stroke mm 1,932

Stroke/bore ratio 4.20

MEP* bar 20

Speed* rpm 129

Mean piston

speed* m/s 8.31

Power* kW/cyl 1,380

SFOC* g/kWh 173

MAN B&W S60ME-B
Bore mm 600
Stroke mm 2,400
Stroke/bore ratio 4.00
MEP* bar 20
Speed* rpm 105

Mean piston
speed* m/s 8.40
Power* kW/cyl 2,380
SFOC* g/kWh 169

The ME-B design is based on the experience gathered from MAN Diesel’s existing engine ranges, among the most popular engines available on today’s market with a combined total of over 3,000 engines in service. The economical ME-B design utilises a camshaft-operated exhaust valve and an electronically controlled fuel-injection system. In addition, the physical dimensions of the S46- and S60ME-B bedplates are identical to those of their MC-C and ME-C equivalents, greatly facilitating installation of the new technology with the same footprint if required.

Electronic fuel injection makes the new ME-B engines well-equipped to meet the new Tier 2 emission requirements, and is an efficient way of managing current environmental-emission requirements.

As with the larger MAN B&W ME-engines, the Alpha Lubricator comes as standard with all engines, ensuring a very low, cylinder lubricating-oil consumption as the advanced, electronic, user-friendly interface allows precise adjustment.
Market reception for the ME-B series has been very positive to date with a significant 88 orders already received.

The first ME-B engine was built in December 2007 by STX Heavy Industries Co., Ltd. at its Changwon works in Korea. The 6S40ME-B delivers 6,810 kW at 146 rpm with an MEP of 21 bar and, on account of its excellent performance, MAN Diesel decided to extend the ME-B concept to the S46- and S60 segments.

With the launch of the new engines, the entire ME-B programme now boasts a total output range from 4,350 kW to 19,040.
Ole Grøne, Senior Vice President, MAN Diesel Promotion and Sales, commented: “The ME-B series has been an outstanding success since its inception and orders have exceeded even our own, optimistic expectations. The ME-B range fills a gap in the modern prime-mover market and, with the introduction of the S46- and S60ME-B units, MAN Diesel’s latest engine family now has an even broader appeal.”

In summary, the ME-B series offers optimal engine performance in powerful, economic and future-oriented diesel engines, ensuring that they will remain market leaders for decades to come. Based on well-proven diesel technology, the ME-B series provides engines geared to market requirements for: electronic fuel-injection control reliability longer time between overhauls better vessel manoeuvrability very low life-cycle costs.
electronic fuel-injection control reliability longer time between overhauls better vessel manoeuvrability very low life-cycle costs

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Source : MAN B&W